United States

Background 

Despite the prevalence of sexual health-related issues, only half of medical schools in the United States necessitate formal education in sexual medicine. The lack of standard guidelines leaves trainees unprepared to handle sexual health, undermining the quality of overall healthcare.1 This deficit disproportionately impacts women, gender minorities, and the LGBTQIA+ community. 

To address this, we developed a structured, week-long educational initiative, &#39;Sex Positivity Week&#39; (SPW). This student-led program aimed to address these gaps in formal curriculum, focusing on sexual health of marginalized communities. 



Methods 

SPW is a week of student-run and professional-taught workshops and lectures on topics including birth control, gender and sexual diversity, sexually transmitted infections, sex work, mental health, and anatomy. 

One week before SPW 2022, preclinical students were invited to complete a voluntary, anonymous survey that utilized a 6-point Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree) to assess self-reported comprehension of sexual health and positivity before and during medical school. After SPW 2022, students were sent the same survey with additional questions about SPW 2022’s impact. Data was analyzed with SPSS.   



Results 

In the first survey, 79% of students reported not having an LGBTQIA+ inclusive education prior to medical school, and 34.2% and 55.2% of students felt uninformed about women’s sexual health and non-heteronormative sex, respectively. 

Responses reflected perceived inadequacy of the required curriculum. 62% of students agreed the curriculum failed to make them feel knowledgeable about sexual health needs of LGBTQIA+ patients, and 78.2% and 65.6% of students disagreed that the curriculum educated them on non-heteronormative sex practices and female patient needs, respectively. 

Following SPW, 96% of students agreed they learned more about sexual health from SPW than from the required curriculum . 94% and 96% of students agreed SPW made them feel more knowledgeable about women’s health and LGBTQIA+ sexual health topics, respectively. Furthermore, 96% of students reported they felt more comfortable speaking about LGBTQIA+ sexual health topics, and 94% of students agreed they felt more comfortable discussing birth control options with patients. 



Conclusion 

Medical students report poor understanding of LGBTQIA+ and female sexual health before medical school. This poor understanding persists with current curriculum standards. Following SPW, students felt more knowledgeable about sexual health and more comfortable discussing it. This study identifies a gap in medical school education regarding sexual health of LGBTQIA+ and female populations, and an improved reported understanding of these topics following implementation of inclusive sexual health education delivered through SPW. 







References: 



Beebe S, Payne N, Posid T, et al. The Lack of Sexual Health Education in Medical Training Leaves Students and Residents Feeling Unprepared. J Sex Med. 2021;18(12):1998-2004. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.09.011

2023 AMA Research Challenge

Improving Future Provider Understanding of LGBTQIA+ and Women’s Health Through a Novel Curriculum Enhancement Model for Sexual Health Education in Medical School

Background 

Despite the prevalence of sexual health-related issues, only half of medical schools in the United States necessitate formal education in sexual medicine. The lack of standard guidelines leaves trainees unprepared to handle sexual health, undermining the quality of overall healthcare.1 This deficit disproportionately impacts women, gender minorities, and the LGBTQIA+ community. 

To address this, we developed a structured, week-long educational initiative, 'Sex Positivity Week' (SPW). This student-led program aimed to address these gaps in formal curriculum, focusing on sexual health of marginalized communities. 



Methods 

SPW is a week of student-run and professional-taught workshops and lectures on topics including birth control, gender and sexual diversity, sexually transmitted infections, sex work, mental health, and anatomy. 

One week before SPW 2022, preclinical students were invited to complete a voluntary, anonymous survey that utilized a 6-point Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree) to assess self-reported comprehension of sexual health and positivity before and during medical school. After SPW 2022, students were sent the same survey with additional questions about SPW 2022’s impact. Data was analyzed with SPSS.   



Results 

In the first survey, 79% of students reported not having an LGBTQIA+ inclusive education prior to medical school, and 34.2% and 55.2% of students felt uninformed about women’s sexual health and non-heteronormative sex, respectively. 

Responses reflected perceived inadequacy of the required curriculum. 62% of students agreed the curriculum failed to make them feel knowledgeable about sexual health needs of LGBTQIA+ patients, and 78.2% and 65.6% of students disagreed that the curriculum educated them on non-heteronormative sex practices and female patient needs, respectively. 

Following SPW, 96% of students agreed they learned more about sexual health from SPW than from the required curriculum . 94% and 96% of students agreed SPW made them feel more knowledgeable about women’s health and LGBTQIA+ sexual health topics, respectively. Furthermore, 96% of students reported they felt more comfortable speaking about LGBTQIA+ sexual health topics, and 94% of students agreed they felt more comfortable discussing birth control options with patients. 



Conclusion 

Medical students report poor understanding of LGBTQIA+ and female sexual health before medical school. This poor understanding persists with current curriculum standards. Following SPW, students felt more knowledgeable about sexual health and more comfortable discussing it. This study identifies a gap in medical school education regarding sexual health of LGBTQIA+ and female populations, and an improved reported understanding of these topics following implementation of inclusive sexual health education delivered through SPW. 







References: 



Beebe S, Payne N, Posid T, et al. The Lack of Sexual Health Education in Medical Training Leaves Students and Residents Feeling Unprepared. J Sex Med. 2021;18(12):1998-2004. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.09.011

poster

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AMA would like to thank Laurel Road for sponsoring a $10,000 grand prize for the winner of the AMA Research Challenge. Laurel Road is not involved in the judging or scoring process to select the winner. The winner will be announced on February 4, 2024 during the AMA Research Challenge finals. Payment of the grand prize will be directly from Laurel Road. See the AMA Research Challenge Official Rules for terms and conditions.

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Join the AMA Research Challenge poster symposium and semifinals to explore top research posters, score posters in the semifinals (an AMA member exclusive opportunity) and attend education sessions with experienced physicians to learn tips to advance your research and career. 

Background
Trauma-informed care (TIC) is an approach that assumes every patient has probably experienced some traumatic event in their lifetime. Studies have shown that 63% - 89% of people living in the United States have experienced at least one traumatic event in their lifetime, which is evidence that supports the importance of this assumption. TIC is also an approach that recognizes common signs and symptoms of trauma that a patient may present with, such as dissociation, hypervigilance, or self-harm. Furthermore, TIC acknowledges that past traumas could still influence patients' current lives regarding their mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being. For example, trauma can lead to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which has been associated with an increased risk of chronic mental and physical health conditions such as substance use, depression and anxiety, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Trauma-informed care integrates these ideas and overall knowledge of trauma into practice and policy so that practitioners can proactively avoid retraumatizing patients while providing patients with the care they need.

Methods 
To promote the use of trauma-informed care by medical students at the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine (UCCOM), we decided to incorporate it into the preclinical curriculum. We revised the instructional packets used to teach physical exam skills to first-year medical students within the clinical skills course. These revisions included revised informational packets that included suggestions for how to drape patients during exams, how to approach sensitive topics or exam maneuvers, and other TIC practices. At the beginning of the academic year, first-year students were asked to respond to the statement “I feel confident in my ability to provide trauma-informed care.” Responses were based on a 5-point Likert scale from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). 

Results
After the introduction to TIC through the clinical skills course materials, the number of students who responded “agree” or “strongly agree” (likert rating of 4 or 5, respectively) increased from 20% to 76%. Additionally, the number of students who responded “disagree” or “strongly disagree” (likert rating of 2 or 1, respectively) decreased from 57.5% to 16%. The average rating increased from 2.45 to 3.76.

Conclusion
Students reported overall increased confidence in their abilities to provide trauma-informed care after exposure to TIC practices and suggestions during their preclinical courses. Based on these results, we intend to continue the integration of TIC into the preclinical curriculum for the upcoming academic year and hope to elicit more student feedback using existing evaluations collected by UCCOM for further improvement.

Incorporating Trauma-Informed Care into the Preclinical Curriculum

Background: After the COVID-19 pandemic, social media has become exponentially more important for attracting fellowship applicants. Virtual interviews have made it difficult for applicants to learn about aspects of a program, such as the culture of the program, appearance of the hospital, and what the city has to offer. Social media can bridge that gap for many fellowship programs. It also gives programs the opportunity to show how they are unique and connect with applicants on a personal level. We sought to evaluate the presence of social media across allergy and immunology fellowship programs in the United States and determine if it is being effectively used to attract applicants to the field and their program. 

Methods: A comprehensive list of all allergy and immunology fellowships offered in the United States was compiled via the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology website and the AMA FREIDA Fellowship database. Subsequently, a search was performed for each fellowship's social media presence on Twitter and Instagram, in addition to YouTube for a recruitment video. For programs that did not have a specific fellowship social media account, the department account was used if there was fellowship prevalent content being shared. An additional search was performed to evaluate if each program had an active up-to-date website with information for applicants. Further analysis was subsequently performed looking at the number of followers and the total number of posts on both instagram and twitter. Microsoft Excel was subsequently used to analyze the data and perform descriptive statistics. 

Results: Based on the analysis, the social media platform most utilized by allergy and immunology fellowship programs was YouTube via recruitment videos (27.92%). This is followed by Twitter (15.22%) and lastly Instagram (5.81%). A majority of fellowship programs were found to have an actively updated website (95.34%). In comparing Twitter vs. Instagram followers, Twitter was the more popular platform of choice displaying an average of 415 followers per allergy and immunology fellowship program. Meanwhile, Instagram displayed an average of 257 followers.

Conclusion: Social media can be an effective tool to help applicants learn more about programs and to distribute information quickly. However, it is being severely underutilized by many fellowship programs in the era of virtual interviews. It is imperative that graduate medical education departments remain current with trends in social media to maintain and keep an active professional presence on easily accessible platforms. 


The Utilization of Social Media in Allergy & Immunology Fellowship Programs

Background: Social media (SoMe) has revolutionized the way people communicate and transformed various aspects of modern life. The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated reduced in person interaction and the ACGME recommended a shift to virtual residency interviews. This shift increased the reliance of residency programs and medical school graduates on SoMe for recruitment and information. This study aims to determine the impact of social media during the anesthesiology residency application cycle and characterize the content that anesthesiology residency programs can use to most effectively optimize programs’ ability to recruit applicants.
Methods: This project was approved by the Augusta University Institutional Review Board. An anonymous online survey was distributed to residency program directors and coordinators at all US ACGME-accredited anesthesiology residency programs for dissemination to their residents. This 17-question survey was created on Qualtrics and included questions regarding demographics, current PGY year, type of medical degree, interview type, social media use, and social media impact. Microsoft Excel was used to perform descriptive statistics and t-tests where applicable. Responses were summarized using frequencies and percentages for categorical data. The chi-square test (or Fisher exact test, as appropriate) was used to examine the association between categorical variables. Theme analysis was used for the open-ended questions.

Results: A total of 109 respondents completed the survey. Respondents were similarly distributed among the four PGY years. Participants under 30 years older were significantly more likely to look at SoMe while applying for residency compared to individual older than 35 years old (p<0.01). Female respondents used Instagram significantly more often than males, and males used YouTube and Reddit significantly more often than females (p < 0.05). Participants primarily sought information regarding program culture (58%) and lifestyle (50%) from SoMe. Regarding improving efficacy of SoMe outreach, common themes identified include resident-made content, using different elements of SoMe posts to increase engagement, and increasing accessibility to SoMe via increasing number of platforms.

Conclusion: This study presents a national analysis of SoMe impact on the anesthesiology residency application process. To cultivate a more purposeful approach to SoMe usage among anesthesiology residency programs, a meticulous examination of the content that is most beneficial to residency applicants is paramount. This study underscores the importance of using social media’s original "social" function by crafting posts that spotlight program culture and residency lifestyle in a clear and welcoming manner, all with the goal of engaging and appealing to anesthesiology residency applicants.

Making Social Media “Social” May Improve Anesthesiology Residency Program Outreach

Background
While substantial progress has been made toward gender parity in dermatology, significant gender gaps remain in Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS). Less than one-third of US Mohs surgeons are women, compared to 52% of dermatologists and 37% of all physicians. Fellowship directors (FDs) play a pivotal role in shaping the future of MMS through direct mentorship and advocacy of subspecialty-wide changes. Characterizing FDs in terms of gender, research productivity, and career timeline have yielded crucial insights into mitigating future inequities. Presently, studies characterizing FDs within MMS are lacking. Herein, we aimed to explore gender trends in MMS FDs and fellows over time and analyze FD characteristics to provide a framework for improving gender diversity.

Methods
We compiled a comprehensive list of FDs and fellows for all Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education–accredited Micrographic Surgery & Dermatologic Oncology programs from 1996 to 2023. Publicly available data from various internet sources from February 1, 2023 to May 30, 2023 were used to assess characteristics of MMS FDs, including gender, research productivity, program type, educational background, and career timeline. Student’s t-test, Chi-square test, Fisher's exact test, and linear regression were used for statistical analysis.

Results
From 1996 to 2023, the percentage of women fellows increased from 24% to 43% and women FDs increased from 6% to 25%. Women FDs were more likely to select women fellows than men FDs (p=0.0002). Six residency programs accounted for 32% of current FDs, and 10 fellowship programs accounted for nearly 50% of current FDs. Women FDs had fewer years between fellowship completion and FD appointment (9.1 ± 4.7 years) compared to men (13.6 ± 8.8 years; p = 0.036). Women FDs also had fewer years of practice (18.3 ± 6.8 years) compared to men (24.2 ± 10.8 years; p = 0.030). H-index, program type, and academic rank were similar between men and women FDs.

Conclusion
Earlier involvement in academic leadership for women Mohs surgeons is a promising predictor of gender equality on the trainee level, though gender diversity of FDs must be improved. Limitations of this study include that our methods did not account for non-binary genders; thus, the collected data may not be entirely representative of the study population. Future studies should explore ethnic/racial representation in MMS leadership. Such endeavors will propel the field towards building a more representative medical community that delivers the best patient care.

Eeny, meeny, miny, “Mohs": Characterizing gender and leadership trends in Mohs micrographic surgery

Background: There is much excitement and curiosity about artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) among medical students and professionals, especially regarding the impact of automation in medicine. Despite the enormous impact that these technologies are poised to have in the delivery of healthcare, few programs exist to deliberately expose future physicians to the role of AI and ML in medicine, especially those without a background in data science or programming. While online courses exist to teach programming skills and machine learning model development, these are inaccessible to most medical students with limited time and varying technical backgrounds. We designed an interactive workshop to introduce students to basic AI/ML concepts and allow them to train a machine learning model without writing any code. The intended audience was students with no technical or coding background.
Methods: The 45-minute workshop consisted of a 25- minute didactic introduction to ML concepts, ethics, and limitations, and a 20-minute interactive application of ML. Using Teachable Machine, an online interface, students trained diagnostic models to classify dermatologic lesions. The workshop was conducted three times at Emory University School of Medicine, once virtually (September 2020) and twice in-person (November 2021 and April 2023). Anonymous pre- and post-workshop surveys were conducted to measure conceptual and technical understanding of AI/ML, awareness of applications and limitations, and interest in contributing to AI/ML innovation. Data were analyzed by the Wilcoxon Rank Sum test.
Results: Forty-eight total students attended the three sessions. The two in-person sessions in November 2021 and April 2023 were quantitatively evaluated; 26 in-person participants (87%) found the workshop helpful and enjoyable, reporting significant increases (p<0.001) for understanding of the difference between ML and AI (84%), ML applications in medicine (50%), and ML limitations (67%). We also observed a 13% increase in the group’s interest in contributing to AI/ML innovation (p=0.009).
Conclusion: This intervention shows that less than an hour of didactic and interactive training effectively lowers barriers to the promising fields of AI/ML, improving medical student competencies and attitudes towards machine learning.

An Interactive Introduction to Machine Learning for Medical Students


The importance of understanding the healthcare needs of individuals with skin of color (SoC) in dermatology has gained increasing awareness. Though research suggests dermatologic literature is one of the key sources providers reference for patient care, the focus is primarily on lighter skin tones, which can be detrimental in providing care for patients with SoC. While there has been recent emphasis on incorporating SoC-focused lectures in residency training, we believe there remains a deficit of this knowledge due to the deficiency of instruction throughout medical school curricula. This study analyzes medical students’ comfort with diagnosing dermatologic conditions among different presentations based on their didactic training.
First and second-year Rocky Vista University medical students (n=22) attended an educational workshop where they were presented with seven dermatologic conditions and asked to diagnose each beginning with a SoC patient, followed by an identical condition in a Caucasian patient, and finally a medical vignette with common descriptors of the condition. Students completed an anonymous survey before and after the seminar to evaluate their comfort level change in identifying dermatologic lesions. Participants' self-reported their comfort in diagnosing these conditions on a scale of 1-10. The number of correct diagnoses was also analyzed.
Prior to the workshop, participants had a mean comfort level of 6.04 ± 1.84 for Caucasian presentations and 4.09 ± 1.54 for SoC presentations. After the seminar, the comfort level increased to 7.04 ± 1.79 for Caucasian presentations and 6.18 ± 2.01 for SoC presentations. Nineteen participants provided anonymous diagnoses for each condition in SoC, caucasian, and clinical vignette presentations. The average percentage of correct answers were 23.26% for SoC presentations, 34.58% for caucasian presentations, and 68.42% for clinical vignettes.
Based on our sample, medical students exhibited higher comfort levels in diagnosing dermatologic conditions in Caucasian skin tones compared to SoC presentations, and correct diagnoses also favored Caucasian presentations over SoC patients. However, following the seminar, the greatest increases in comfort level resulted in SoC presentations, indicating the effectiveness of this instruction in didactic training. Clinical vignettes received the highest correct diagnoses, highlighting the reliance on terminology rather than visual interpretation in early medical education. These findings emphasize the need for diversity of visual dermatological presentations in early medical education and the importance of shifting away from excessive reliance on "buzzwords" in clinical vignettes. By addressing curricular gaps in medical training, we hope to enhance the quality of care for patients with SoC.

How Comfortable are Medical Students with Interpreting Dermatologic Conditions During Didactic Training?

**Scoring is only possible in the semifinals hall**

**Abstract:**



Skin Conditions and Villainous Depictions in Anime Films: Exploring Unconscious Bias in Patient-Provider Interactions

Background: Rural communities rely heavily on EMS teams to provide high quality care during transport to often distant medical facilities. Compliance with standardized protocols has been shown to increase triage effectiveness on a global scale, and our providers use the EMS Prehospital Treatment Protocol Handbook to guide care. The purpose of this study is to evaluate if the clinical documentation of our EMS providers follows standard protocols. 

Methods: Tri-County regional trauma calls in the Maine Incident Reporting System database from July 1st, 2022 to July 31st, 2022 were reviewed. The logs were compared to the EMS Prehospital Treatment Protocol Handbook. Documentation was analyzed for inclusion of relevant details as outlined by the appropriate protocol. The author of each log was documented to establish trends among personnel.

Results: 121 cases were included in the final analysis. The most common chief concerns included falls (n = 76) and motor vehicle collisions (n = 24). The most commonly used protocol was the Trauma Triage protocol. 28 cases (23.1%) did not include a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). Two of the GCS scores were below 8, but neither patient was intubated. Of the 28 cases without GCS documentation, 20 cases involved the chief concern of “fall” (71.4%) and 7 were motor vehicle collisions (25%). Of the 38 unique authors, 13 providers were responsible for the cases without GCS documentation, with two providers being responsible for 11 of the 28 cases.

Conclusion: The Trauma Triage protocol was broadly used to cover injuries ranging from standing height falls to head on motor vehicle collisions. Although it is possible that clinical care was provided appropriately when a GCS was not recorded, it could also indicate that our patients were not triaged effectively in the field. Given that two providers accounted for 39% of documentation issues, targeted education could drastically increase the rate of GCS documentation in our group. GCS could also be programmed as a required field for all trauma calls in order to increase compliance throughout the entire group. Locating more validated trauma protocols based on the mechanism of injury could further define how patients need to be triaged as opposed to using one protocol for all trauma. The next step in this study would be to investigate how the rates of GCS documentation changed after implementation of these proposed strategies. 

References:
Van Rein, E.A.J. et al. “Compliance to prehospital trauma triage protocols worldwide: A systematic review.” Injury. 2018; 49(8): 1373-1380. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30135040/

Documentation of Prehospital Treatment Protocols in Emergency Medical Services Trauma Calls

Introduction
Clostridium difficile (C. diff) is the leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea and has been shown to impact about 13 in every 1000 hospitalized patients. The occurrence of C. diff and Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have been linked to disruption of the gut microbiota (dysbiosis) which may explain the parallel rise of C. diff infection in IBD patients. Our study aimed to analyze the cost burden and clinical outcomes of hospitalized IBD patients with C. diff infections.
Methods
240,550 adults hospitalized with Crohn’s disease or Ulcerative colitis were analyzed using the NIS data from 2016-2019. Patients were classified into a group with C. diff and a group without C. diff and variables like Age, gender, race, diabetes mellitus, nicotine use, anemia, end-stage renal disease (ESRD), thrombocytopenia, albumin abnormality, peritoneal abscess, toxic megacolon, gastrointestinal bleed, vesicovaginal fistula, anorectal fistula, vesicointestinal fistula, mortality, and hospitalization cost were analyzed using the two-sample t test, chi-square test, and multiple linear regression. P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Results
We found that compared to men, women hospitalized with IBD are more likely to get infected with C. diff (4.2% vs 4.5%, P = < 0.001). Older IBD patients (Mean age of 53.1) are at risk compared to other age groups (P = < 0.001). Whites had the least C. diff rates compared to blacks, Hispanics, Asians, Native America, and others (4.2% vs 4.7% vs 5.6% vs 5.3% vs 4.4% vs 4.5%, P = < 0.001). IBD patients with anemia and thrombocytopenia had a significantly higher rate of C. diff infection (P = < 0.001). Interestingly, nicotine dependence and peritoneal abscess protected against C. diff infection (P = < 0.001 and 0.008). The average total hospital cost among IBD patients with C. diff was $20,254 higher compared to those without C. diff after controlling the effects of the variables - age, gender, race, nicotine status, anemia, ESRD, peritoneal abscess, thrombocytopenia, gastrointestinal bleed, and vesicovaginal fistula. The odds of mortality among IBD patients with C. diff was more than twice compared to those without C. diff (OR = 2.1, p = < 0.001).
Discussion
IBD patients remain at increased risk of C. diff infection and more hospital expenses. Hence, clinicians should rule out C. diff infection first in every IBD patient presenting with disease flare-ups or diarrhea.

In-hospital Mortality, Outcomes and Cost Analysis of Hospitalized Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients with Clostridium difficile Infection.


Introduction:
High-fidelity three-dimensional (3D) models provide a better understanding of spatial relationships among complex anatomical structures. Medical students often lack hands-on opportunities to develop an in-depth understanding of applied anatomy prior to their clinical years, a trend exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. There is limited research on the utilization of 3D models in the clinical years. This study evaluates the effectiveness of an interactive 3D-printed inguinal hernia model in teaching applied surgical anatomy to third-year medical students (MS3).

Materials and Methods:
3D-printed models of inguinal anatomy were created using de-identified CT scans, 3D-modeling software, and 3D-printing services. A single-blind randomized control trial of third-year medical students was conducted at a single academic institution. The tactile-group received three educational tools describing inguinal hernia anatomy and repair: an established video module (WISE-MD), an illustrated procedure guide, and a 3D-printed model. The non-tactile group was provided the WISE-MD module and the illustrated procedure guide. Both groups received pre- and post-tests on basic and applied anatomy. Statistical analysis was performed using a t-test or Mann–Whitney U test for continuous variables and Chi-square or Fisher's exact tests for categorical variables. Statistical significance was defined by p <0.05.

Results:
One hundred and three third-year medical students participated in this study. There were no differences in pre-test scores between study groups (p= 0.98). The tactile-group scored better on post-test questions on applied anatomy (p= 0.03), but no differences were noted in scores on basic anatomy questions (p= 0.41). When comparing performance between overall pre-test and post-test scores, the tactile group demonstrated improvement in test scores which trended toward significance (p= 0.09).

Conclusions:
Third-year medical students using high-fidelity 3D-printed models demonstrated improved test scores on applied anatomy when compared to students who were exposed to conventional educational resources. With the rising use of virtual learning environments, interactive learning tools like 3D-printed anatomy models may have an important role in knowledge acquisition during the surgical clerkship.

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