Korea, Republic of

Predicting difficulty of questions is crucial for technical interviews. However, such questions are long-form and more open-ended than factoid and multiple choice questions explored so far for question difficulty prediction. Existing models also require large volumes of candidate response data for training. We study weak supervision and use unsupervised algorithms for both question generation and difficulty prediction. We create a dataset of interview questions with difficulty scores for Deep Learning and use it to evaluate SOTA models for question difficulty prediction trained using weak supervision. Our analysis brings out the task’s
difficulty as well as the promise of weak supervision for it.

COLING 2022

A Weak Supervision Approach for Predicting Difficulty of Technical Interview Questions

question difficulty

technical interview question

weak supervision

# Welcome everyone to ACL 2022!

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ACL 2022

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COLING, the International Conference on Computational Linguistics, is one of the premier conferences for the natural language processing and computational linguistics.

A significant limitation in developing therapeutic chatbots to support people going through psychological distress is the lack of high-quality, large-scale datasets capturing conversations between clients and trained counselors. As a remedy, researchers have focused their attention on scraping conversational data from peer support platforms such as Reddit. But the extent to which the responses from peers align with responses from trained counselors is understudied. We address this gap by analyzing the differences between responses from counselors and peers by getting trained counselors to annotate ≈17K such responses using Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity (MITI) code, a well-established behavioral coding system that differentiates between favorable and unfavorable responses. We developed an annotation pipeline with several stages of quality control. Due to its design, this method was able to achieve 97% of coverage, meaning that out of the 17.3K responses we successfully labeled 16.8K with a moderate agreement. We use this data to conclude the extent to which conversational data from peer support platforms align with real therapeutic conversations and discuss in what ways they can be exploited to train therapeutic chatbots.

Curating a Large-Scale Motivational Interviewing Dataset using Peer Support Forums

This work deploys linguistically motivated features to classify paragraph-level text into fiction and non-fiction genre using a logistic regression model and infers lexical and syntactic properties that help distinguish the two genres.
Previous works have focused on classifying document-level text into fiction and non-fiction genres, while in this work, we deal with shorter texts which are closer to real-world applications like sentiment analysis of tweets. For the task of short-text classification on the Brown corpus, a model containing linguistically motivated features confers a substantial accuracy jump over a baseline model consisting of simple POS-ratio features found effective in previous work. The efficacy of the above model containing a linguistically motivated feature set also transfers over to another dataset viz, Baby BNC corpus. Subsequently, we compared the classification accuracy of the logistic regression model with two deep-learning models. A 1D-CNN model gives an increase of 2% accuracy over the logistic regression classifier on both datasets. A BERT-based model gives state-of-the art classification accuracies of 97% on Brown corpus and 98% on Baby BNC corpus. Although, both these deep learning models give better results in terms of classification accuracy, the problem of interpreting these models remains an open question. In contrast, regression model coefficients revealed that fiction texts tend to have more character-level diversity and have lower lexical density (quantified using content function word ratios) compared to non-fiction texts. Moreover, subtle differences in word order exist between the two genres, i.e., in fiction texts Verbs precede Adverbs in contrast to the
opposite pattern in non-fiction texts (inter-alia).

Linguistically Motivated Features for Classifying Shorter Text into Fiction and Non-Fiction Genre

With the rapid growth of scientific papers, understanding the changes and trends in a research area is rather time-consuming. The first challenge is to find related and comparable articles for the research. Comparative citations compare co-cited papers in a citation sentence and can serve as good guidance for researchers to track a research area. We thus go through comparative citations to find comparable objects and build a comparative scientific summarization corpus (CSSC). And then, we propose the comparative graph-based summarization (CGSUM) method to create comparative summaries using citations as guidance. The comparative graph is constructed using sentences as nodes and three different relationships of sentences as edges. The relationship that sentences occur in the same paper is used to calculate the salience of sentences, the relationship that sentences occur in two different papers is used to calculate the difference between sentences, and the relationship that sentences are related to citations is used to calculate the commonality of sentences. Experiments show that CGSUM outperforms comparative baselines on CSSC and performs well on DUC2006 and DUC2007.

Comparative Graph-based Summarization of Scientific Papers Guided by Comparative Citations

Few-shot Question Generation (QG) is an important and challenging problem in the Natural Language Generation (NLG) domain. Multilingual BERT (mBERT) has been successfully used in various Natural Language Understanding (NLU) applications. However, the question of how to utilize mBERT for few-shot QG, possibly with cross-lingual transfer, remains. In this paper, we try to explore how mBERT[1] performs in few-shot QG (cross-lingual transfer) and also whether applying meta-learning on mBERT further improves the results. In our setting, we consider mBERT as the base model and fine-tune it using a seq-to-seq language modeling framework in a cross-lingual setting. Further, we apply the model agnostic meta-learning approach to our base model. We evaluate our model for two low-resource Indian languages, Bengali and Telugu, using the TyDi QA[5] dataset. The proposed approach consistently improves the performance of the base model in few-shot settings and even works better than some heavily parameterized models in some settings. Human evaluation also confirms the effectiveness of our approach. 


Does Meta-learning Help mBERT for Few-shot Question Generation in a Cross-lingual Transfer Setting for Indic Languages?

In the developing context of pre-trained models (PTMs), the performance of text classification has been continuously improved by directly employing the features generated by PTMs. However, such a way might not fully explore the knowledge in PTMs as it is constrained by the difficulty of the task. Compared to a difficult task, the learning algorithms tend to saturate early on the simple task. Moreover, the native sentence representations derived from BERT are prone to be collapsed and directly employing such representation for text classification might fail to fully capture discriminative features. 
In order to address these issues, in this paper we propose a novel framework for text classification which implements a two-stage training strategy. In the pre-training stage, auxiliary labels are introduced to increase the task difficulties and to fully exploit the knowledge in the pre-trained model. In the fine-tuning stage, the textual representation learned in the pre-training stage is employed and the classifier is fine-tuned to obtain better classification performance. 
Experiments were conducted on six text classification corpora and the results showed that the proposed framework outperformed several state-of-the-art baselines.

Complicate then Simplify: A Novel Way to Explore Pre-trained Models for Text Classification

Multilingual pre-trained language models have shown impressive performance on cross- lingual tasks. It greatly facilitates the applications of natural language processing on low-resource languages. However, there are still some languages that the current multilingual models do not perform well on. In this paper, we propose CINO (Chinese Minority Pre-trained Language Model), a multilingual pre-trained language model for Chinese minority languages. It covers Standard Chinese, Yue Chinese, and six other ethnic minority languages. To evaluate the cross-lingual ability of the multilingual model on ethnic minority languages, we collect documents from Wikipedia and news websites, and construct two text classification datasets, WCM (Wiki-Chinese-Minority) and CMNews (Chinese-Minority-News). We show that CINO notably outperforms the baselines on various classification tasks. The CINO model and the datasets are publicly available at http: //cino.hfl-rc.com.

CINO: A Chinese Minority Pre-trained Language Model

Commonsense question answering (QA) requires machines to utilize the QA content and external commonsense knowledge graph (KG) for reasoning when answering questions. Existing work uses two independent modules to model the QA contextual text representation and relationships between QA entities in KG, which prevents information sharing between modules for co-reasoning. In this paper, we propose a novel model, Co-Reasoning Network (CORN), which adopts a bidirectional multi-level connection structure based on Co-Attention Transformer. The structure builds bridges to connect each layer of the text encoder and graph encoder, which can introduce the QA entity relationship from KG to the text encoder and bring contextual text information to the graph encoder, so that these features can be deeply interactively fused to form comprehensive text and graph node representations. Meanwhile, we propose a QA-aware node based KG subgraph construction method. The QA-aware nodes aggregate the question entity nodes and the answer entity nodes, and further guide the expansion and construction process of the subgraph to enhance the connectivity and reduce the introduction of noise. We evaluate our model on QA benchmarks in the CommonsenseQA and OpenBookQA datasets, and CORN achieves state-of-the-art performance.

CORN: Co-Reasoning Network for Commonsense Question Answering

FAQs are important resources to find information. However, especially if a FAQ concerns many question-answer pairs, it can be a difficult and time-consuming job to find the answer you are looking for. A FAQ chatbot can ease this process by automatically retrieving the relevant answer to a user’s question. We present Vac- cinChatNL, a Dutch FAQ corpus on the topic of COVID-19 vaccination. Starting with 50 question-answer pairs we built VaccinChat, a FAQ chatbot, which we used to gather more user questions that were also annotated with the appropriate or new answer classes. This iterative process of gathering user questions, annotating them, and retraining the model with the increased data set led to a corpus that now contains 12,883 user questions divided over 181 answers. We provide the first publicly available Dutch FAQ answering data set of this size with large groups of semantically equivalent human-paraphrased questions. Furthermore, our study shows that before fine-tuning a classifier, continued pre-training of Dutch language models with task- and/or domain-specific data improves classification results. In addition, we show that large groups of semantically similar questions are important for obtaining well-performing intent classification models.

Domain- and Task-Adaptation for VaccinChatNL, a Dutch COVID-19 FAQ Answering Corpus and Classification Model

The task of shallow discourse parsing in the Penn Discourse Treebank (PDTB) framework has traditionally been restricted to identifying those relations that are signaled by a discourse connective ("explicit") and those that have no signal at all ("implicit"). The third type, the more flexible group of "AltLex" realizations has been neglected because of its small amount of occurrences in the PDTB2 corpus. Their number has grown significantly in the recent PDTB3, and in this paper, we present the first approaches for recognizing these "alternative lexicalizations". We compare the performance of a pattern-based approach and a sequence labeling model, add an experiment on the pre-classification of candidate sentences, and provide an initial qualitative analysis of the error cases made by both models.

Towards Identifying Alternative-Lexicalization Signals of Discourse Relations

Recently, a new training OAXE loss (Du et al., 2021) has proven effective to ameliorate the effect of multimodality for non-autoregressive translation (NAT), which removes the penalty of word order errors in the standard cross entropy loss. Starting from the intuition that reordering generally occurs between phrases, we extend OAXE by only allowing reordering between ngram phrases and still requiring a strict match of word order within the phrases. Extensive experiments on NAT benchmarks across language pairs and data scales demonstrate the effectiveness and universality of our approach.


A Weak Supervision Approach for Predicting Difficulty of Technical Interview Questions

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