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A hallmark of human memory is the ability to integrate discrete experiences into cognitive maps. A fundamental form of this integration is transitive inference (TI), in which overlapping premises (A &lt; B, B &lt; C) are integrated into a unified representation of a relational hierarchy (A &lt; B &lt; C). Few existing theories provide a mechanistic account of this construction of relational knowledge and how it is shaped by different training conditions. This study builds on recent findings that TI is facilitated by chaining of overlapping premises, with a new behavioral experiment confirming an advantage over non-overlapping sequences matched for premise frequency and spacing. A subsequent simulation study shows that the chaining effect is captured by a particle filter which performs approximate Bayesian inference about the latent hierarchy. These results provide a better understanding of how chaining shapes the construction of relational knowledge in the face of uncertainty and forgetting.

CogSci 2022

Modeling the effect of chained study in transitive inference

A hallmark of human memory is the ability to integrate discrete experiences into cognitive maps. A fundamental form of this integration is transitive inference (TI), in which overlapping premises (A < B, B < C) are integrated into a unified representation of a relational hierarchy (A < B < C). Few existing theories provide a mechanistic account of this construction of relational knowledge and how it is shaped by different training conditions. This study builds on recent findings that TI is facilitated by chaining of overlapping premises, with a new behavioral experiment confirming an advantage over non-overlapping sequences matched for premise frequency and spacing. A subsequent simulation study shows that the chaining effect is captured by a particle filter which performs approximate Bayesian inference about the latent hierarchy. These results provide a better understanding of how chaining shapes the construction of relational knowledge in the face of uncertainty and forgetting.

technical paper

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**Abstract:**

Detecting analogy is an important high-level cognitive skill that is involved in many aspects of human reasoning. While Structure Mapping Theory (Gentner, 1983) is a well-recognized high-level theory of analogy, it lacks a neural process implementation that links to perception and attention. Avoiding algorithmic computation on ungrounded symbols, we present a dynamic neural architecture built from interacting neural populations that establishes analogy between objects in two visually presented scenes. Consistent with SMT, it accounts for how humans find such analogies.

**List of authors and affiliations:**

Matthis E Hesse: Fakultät für Philosophie und Erziehungswissenschaft; Daniel Sabinasz: Institut für Neuroinformatik; Gregor Schöner: Ruhr-Universität Bochum

A Perceptually Grounded Neural Dynamic Architecture Establishes Analogy Between Visual Object Pairs

**Abstract:**

Perceptual-motor tasks offer redundant solutions to achieve a goal. However, not all solutions are equally robust to error-producing noise or variability and thus, skill learning can be viewed as a search process to identify behaviors that are error-tolerant. Throwing a ball to hit a target is one such example of a complex perceptual-motor skill that has been studied in the laboratory via the virtual “skittles” task, a simplified 2D task involving throwing a tetherball around a pole to hit a target. We implemented the task as a Unity3D environment (code here: https://github.com/ShortFox/SkittlesTaskEnvironment/) which enables participants to complete the task with a computer mouse and replicated key findings from previous research. Our implementation allows for remote data collection and can serve as a pedagogical tool to teach concepts in skill acquisition. Future work will use this task to explore human versus machine skill acquisition by leveraging Unity’s MLAgents reinforcement learning package.

**List of authors and affiliations:**

Patrick Nalepka: Macquarie University; Georgina Schell: Macquarie University; Gaurav Patil: Macquarie University; Michael J Richardson: Macquarie University

A computer mouse-based throwing task to study perceptual-motor skill learning in humans and machines

Object interactions – collisions, scraping and rolling – create many of the sounds that we hear in the world around us. These sounds are generated via lawful physical dynamics. Anecdotally, humans possess some intuitive knowledge of the physical generative processes underlying sound production, but little is known about the extent and nature of this knowledge. In this work, we study the human ability to make inferences about physical properties like mass, size, velocity and surface roughness from contact sounds, and test whether it is consistent with the use of a generative model of the underlying physics. Additionally, we propose a computational model that uses analysis-by-synthesis to infer object properties and their physical configurations using contact sounds as input, and compare it to human behavior.

Inferring object interactions from scraping and rolling sounds

When concepts are retrieved from memory, this process occurs within a rich search space where multiple sources of information interact with each other. Although the mapping from wordform to meaning is generally considered to be arbitrary, there is recent evidence to suggest that form and meaning may be correlated in natural language, and semantic and phonological cues may interact during retrieval. However, whether phonology interacts with meaning-related information in deeper semantic retrieval tasks, and whether this interaction has broader implications for how we conceptualize semantic retrieval remains relatively understudied. We examined these questions within the framework of the semantic fluency task, where individuals were asked to retrieve as many exemplars as they could from a given category (e.g., animals) within a fixed period of time. Responses were more phonologically similar during later stages of retrieval, and greater phonological similarity across responses was associated with greater number of items produced. We formulated a nested set of optimal foraging models to evaluate the combined influence of semantic and phonological information on retrieval likelihood. Model comparisons revealed that a model that combined frequency, semantic, and phonological information locally to make within-category transitions but relied on only frequency as a global cue to make between-category transitions produced the best explanation of the behavioral data.

Mouse-mole-vole: The inconspicuous benefit of phonology during retrieval from semantic memory

Previous studies have shown that representationally complex referents are encoded slower into working memory (WM) but are retrieved faster (Hofmeister, 2011; Karimi & Ferreira, 2016). However, the cost of maintaining complex representations is still not well understood. Through two self-paced reading experiments, we investigated the cost of encoding, maintaining and retrieving complex representations in WM. While we replicated the facilitatory effect during retrieval, the slowdown during encoding was not consistent across our experiments. More critically, for the first time, our experiments demonstrated that maintaining complex representations in WM is less costly than maintaining their simple counterparts. Furthermore, we found that WM maintenance cost is reduced because complex target noun phrases are more distinct from other competing referents in WM than simple ones. Overall, our results showed that the semantic elaboration of complex representations can reduce maintenance cost and provided new perspectives into this understudied WM process.

Noun phrase representational complexity reduces maintenance cost in working memory by increasing distinctiveness between referents

Knowledge of cause and effect allows people to navigate and understand the complex systems of the world. Despite the importance of causal knowledge to everyday reasoning, little is known about how people transfer causal knowledge learned in one situation to novel contexts. In two experiments, we examine when people choose to generalize two types of causal knowledge, causal mechanisms (Experiment 1) and causal strength (Experiment 2), across various domains. We find that people willingly transfer causal knowledge to novel contexts when the entities in those contexts share high categorical relatedness with the source of the causal knowledge. The extent to which people are willing to transfer causal knowledge decreases as category similarity decreases. We discuss future research that could delineate the boundaries of causal transfer.

Transferring Novel Causal Knowledge

Self-directed learners are often described as ‘intuitive scientists’, yet they also tend to struggle in assessments of their scientific reasoning. We investigate a novel explanation for this apparent gap between formal and informal scientific inquiry. Specifically, we consider whether learners’ documented failure to correctly apply the control of variables strategy might stem from a mismatch between their causal intuitions and task presentation. Children (7- and 9-year-olds) and adults were tested on a version of a traditional multivariate reasoning task (Tschirgi, 1980) that we modified to clarify ambiguous elements of the causal logic. A significant majority of participants in all age groups selected informative experiments on this modified task, avoiding confounded actions with positive tangible outcomes. This finding contrasts with the longstanding claim that learners do not correctly employ control of variables without extensive training and suggests that self-directed scientific inquiry may be intuitively suited to support causal learning goals.

Clarifying the Causal Logic of a Classic Control of Variables Task

Suppose we observe something happen in an interaction be- tween two objects A and B. Can we then predict what will hap- pen in an interaction between A and C, or between B and C? Recent research, inspired by work on the “causal asymmetry”, suggests that people use cues to causal agency to guide object- based generalization decisions, even in relatively abstract set- tings. When object A possesses cues to causal agency (e.g. it moves, remains stable throughout the interaction), people tend to predict that what happened will probably also occur in an interaction between A and C, but not between B and C. Here we replicate and extend this work, with the goal of identify- ing the cues that people use to determine that an object is a causal agent. In four experiments, we manipulate three prop- erties of the agent and recipient objects. We find that people anchor their inductive generalizations around the agent object when that object possesses all three cues to causal agency, but removing either cue abolishes the asymmetry.

Dissecting causal asymmetries in inductive generalization

The same causal system can be accurately described in many ways. What governs the evaluation of these choices? We propose a novel, formal account of causal evaluation according to which evaluations of causal claims reflect the joint demands of maximal informativeness and maximal compression. Across two experiments, we show that evaluations of more and less compressed causal claims are sensitive to the amount of information lost by choosing the more compressed causal claim over a less compressed one, regardless of whether the compression is realized by coarsening a single variable or by eliding a background condition. This offers a unified account of two dimensions along which causal claims are evaluated (proportionality and stability), and contributes to a more general picture of human cognition according to which the capacity to create compressed (causal) representations plays a central role.

Modeling the effect of chained study in transitive inference

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A Perceptually Grounded Neural Dynamic Architecture Establishes Analogy Between Visual Object Pairs

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