United States

The rising popularity of spatial computing has generated an increased demand for high fidelity 3D-modeling solutions. However, most of these applications assume laboratory-controlled image conditions, which relaxes the problem. On the contrary, real-world situations require algorithms to operate under unconstrained and opportunistic imaging conditions. As part of the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity’s (IARPA) WRIVA program, Accenture is developing advanced novel view synthesis technology to enable new capabilities for mission planning and preparation, remote asset monitoring and inspection, visualization and virtual reality with emphasis on building solutions for unconstrained and non-cooperative image settings. 
We have developed a computer vision capability to perform novel view synthesis and high-fidelity 3D site modeling from limited imagery (in space and time) and a diverse set of imaging sensors while addressing several environmental, data gap and architectural challenges. In addition, we have investigated algorithms that can detect and mitigate image (meta)data artifacts to improve site model representation including time stamp prediction, camera pose restoration, and image artifact detection and mitigation. 
The 3D site modeling involves learning an accurate representation of the scene’s geometry and structure given the available imagery using a combination of techniques including structure-from-motion, monocular depth estimation, and Gaussian Splatting. This learned model is then used to render arbitrary viewpoints to synthesize novel views from arbitrary viewpoints. Additionally, the model can produce high fidelity 3D site representations, including depth maps and point clouds as byproducts for more explicit access to the scene’s 3D geometry.
In this talk we will describe how, in collaboration with world-class academic institutions, we are researching and developing state-of-the-art capabilities in 3D reconstruction and site modeling (e.g., Gaussian Splatting and Neural Radiance Fields) to become a viable alternative for use cases involving point clouds and classical photogrammetry. We will discuss how we are building site models and reconstructing large outdoor scenes given a set of unconstrained image sensors. We will further show how we are using generative AI to edit scenes (add/remove/edit objects) in a 3D sense to facilitate interpretability and exploration.
Additionally, we will show how our computational framework can generate fly-through and walk-through renders, while a user can freely navigate in them mapped environment using their mobile device or virtual reality headset.


NAML 2025

BELLA – Building Navigable Geospatial Environments at Large scales with Limited Imagery Under Sensor Agnostic Conditions

gaussian splatting

3d site modeling

novel view synthesis

3d reconstruction

technical paper

### Welcome to the 9th annual workshop on Naval Applications of Machine Learning!

NAML is the premier annual event showcasing current machine learning research relevant to Naval applications. We welcome participation from the defense community, industry, and academia. The NAML workshop is an opportunity for researchers from Navy research and development centers and our partner organizations to exchange technical ideas and to come together as a team. 
 Naval Information Warfare Center Pacific is partnering with AFCEA San Diego chapter to host the workshop.

The goals of NAML are:

* To spread awareness of current machine learning research relevant to Naval applications
* To connect machine learning researchers with experts in military requirements
* To build and strengthen collaborations within the defense research community

#### *"What we do as a Navy is a human business. Don’t pass up an opportunity to come together as a team. Don’t pass up leadership opportunities, and don’t outsource them to a PowerPoint. If you have an opportunity to come together as a team, to increase belonging, do it."*
Admiral John M. Richardson, 31st Chief of Naval Operations

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The 9th annual workshop on Naval Applications of Machine Learning is an opportunity for researchers from Navy research and development centers and our partner organizations to exchange technical ideas and to come together as a team. The goals of NAML are to spread awareness of current machine learning research relevant to Naval applications, to connect machine learning researchers with experts in military requirements and to build and strengthen collaborations within the defense research community.

The GenAI for Wargaming initiative, part of the CAIMANS project, explores the integration of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) to automate the creation of military wargaming scenarios. Traditional scenario development is time-intensive, requiring extensive human effort to research, analyze, and synthesize operationally relevant content. This project aims to enhance wargaming efficiency by using AI to generate “Road to War” briefs, tactical vignettes, and executable simulation scripts in seconds rather than days.

In Sprint 1, the team developed an AI-driven pipeline that leverages LLMs to generate structured, contextually accurate wargaming scenarios. By incorporating RAG techniques and verified data sources (e.g., the Janes military database), the system minimizes inaccuracies and enhances realism. A fact-verification loop further reduces AI hallucinations, ensuring generated content aligns with real-world constraints.

A key innovation in this sprint is the automated translation of scenarios into Lua scripts for execution in the Command PE simulation environment. This allows rapid scenario instantiation, enabling real-time scenario iteration and dynamic course-of-action assessments. Additionally, the project explored AI applications for DIGICAT (a digital operational wargaming system) and began assessing LLM-driven optimization models for military applications.

Results demonstrate a significant reduction in manpower and time required for scenario generation, with outputs meeting operationally relevant accuracy and fidelity standards. This system will be tested in the Northwest Pacific 2025 wargame, providing real-world validation of AI-driven wargaming automation. Future research will focus on real-time scenario adaptation, intelligent agent behaviors, and reinforcement learning integration, further advancing the role of AI in military planning and strategic decision-making.

GenAI for Wargaming - Sprint 1 - Scenario Generation using LLMs

Wargaming, as a part of mission planning or strategic training, is an important but time-consuming process designed to ensure that any planned military courses of action (CoAs) are made with a comprehensive understanding of how encounters with enemy agents could unfold. Simulating the course of action of enemy agents is a vital aspect of wargaming, as this allows military strategists to play out different possible CoAs, identify weaknesses in their CoAs that enemies could exploit, and further strengthen their CoAs to account for a range of enemy responses. Advances in generative AI could take advantage of the creative strengths of Large Language Models (LLMs) to considerably speed up the wargaming process. 
To this end we present our progress on wargaming within GAME (Generative AI Mission Engineering), our project aiming to use LLMs for mission planning. We have developed the wargaming system we call NEXUS (Naval EXperimental Unit Simulation), which includes a battlespace framework for modern military combat. NEXUS updates the state of battle in accordance with command decisions and allows information about the state of battle to be packaged into a structured data format for an LLM to easily process. NEXUS also builds upon existing LLM-based military command simulators (Goecks & Waytowich, 2024). In the process of building NEXUS we evaluated how well different self-reflection frameworks enhanced CoA generation and found that the best-performing framework for benchmark problems with a single possible solution (Zhao & Huang, 2023) nonetheless produced underwhelming results when used for CoA generation in more open-world problems with many valid solutions. To explore different possible enemy actions, we prioritize the production of diverse CoAs by crafting commander “personas” with contrasting personalities (e.g., aggressive vs cautious). In conjunction with the ReAct (“reason before action”) framework (Yao & Zhao, 2023), our approach allows NEXUS to generate creative battle strategies within that persona’s specific role to enable testing CoAs that best fulfill mission objectives.

V. G. Goecks and N. Waytowich, ‘‘COA-GPT: Generative pre-trained transformers for accelerated course of action development in military operations,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. Mil. Commun. Inf. Syst. (ICMCIS), Apr. 2024, pp. 1–24.

Andrew Zhao, Daniel Huang, Quentin Xu, Matthieu Lin, Yong-Jin Liu, and Gao Huang. Expel: LLM agents are experiential learners. arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.10144, 2023.

S. Yao, J. Zhao, D. Yu, N. Du, I. Shafran, K. R. Narasimhan, and Y. Cao, “ReAct: Synergizing reasoning and acting in language models,” in International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR), 2023.

Generative AI Mission Engineering: A Creative Approach

As generative artificial intelligence advances and unlocks the ability to communicate reasoning behind problems it solves, it is now possible to begin deploying these reasoning agents in wargaming scenarios. By judging the model based on scoring rules (i.e., assigning points/probabilities for outcomes) and recursively retraining these models on the outputs, we can enhance their effectiveness over time. This paper’s goal is not to unlock an “instant solve” to problems (as some other papers have attempted) but to judge how the results of top-scoring, publicly available generative AI models compare to results from traditional simulations.

As a reference point to what is being done in other industries, the paper will apply a tree of thought and vector database of baseball data to determine the optimal batting lineup for a manager to deploy. Drawing parallels to techniques in professional sports, the paper, in collaboration with subject matter experts from the Naval Postgraduate School and the Marine Corps Warfighting Lab, will use a similar Gen AI architecture to help determine optimal sequencing of an attack against a defended target. By utilizing Gen AI, we aim to explore new strategies and tactics, including innovative uses of weapons systems and other capabilities that may not be immediately apparent to human planners.

To judge the performance of each Gen AI model, the paper will establish “ground truth” using traditional simulations to determine the optimal line-ups and sequencing. This comparison will allow us to assess the effectiveness of the AI models in generating viable strategies and their potential to enhance decision-making processes in wargaming.

The paper aims to demonstrate how the advantage of using Gen AI and tree of thought methodologies is that human decision-makers can be given context and explanations to enhance their decision-making. By providing transparent reasoning behind each recommendation, decision-makers can better understand the potential outcomes and risks associated with different courses of action. It will touch on future implications for enhancing wargaming adjudication by providing more objective, data-driven assessments of tactical engagements. It will also explore how these models can help in discovering new ways of employing weapons systems and other capabilities. Gen AI may identify unconventional strategies and resource allocations that maximize effectiveness while minimizing risks. This can lead to the development of innovative tactics and enhance overall operational effectiveness.

In conclusion, this research seeks to bridge the gap between traditional wargaming simulations and advanced Gen AI models, highlighting the potential benefits of integrating AI reasoning agents into military planning and execution. By exploring new ways of using weapons systems and capabilities, and enhancing the adjudication process, we aim to contribute to the development of more effective and adaptive military strategies.

From Baseball to the Battlefield: Applying Sports Analytics and Generative AI to Wargaming

Background: Trust in AI systems is recognized as key for team performance, for the adoption and use of new technology, and to adapt, modernize, and maintain a competitive edge. This is especially important for military and civilian operations with AI systems. However, the nature of trust is elusive, complicated, and enmeshed in a web of subjectivity. Trust is amorphous, abstract, context-dependent, dynamic, often irrational, complicated by subjective observer (trustor) dependencies, complicated by subject (trustee) dependencies, and suffers from measurement difficulties because of its tacit nature (surveys and questionnaires are estimates, not truth, because people often say or think one thing and do another). 

Objectives: The overall goal of the Operational Trust in Mission Autonomy (OPTIMA) working group is to improve models and estimates of trust to understand, diagnose, and predict usage of AI systems. This will inform AI development, human training, and human-machine teaming. The goals of this work were to create an epistemological foundation for trust estimation by: 
(1) Explicitly defining and justifying foundational beliefs,
(2) Formalizing a trust estimation methodology, and
(3) Identifying trust and trustworthiness concepts and distilling them into a socio-technical ontology of antecedents, and an ontology of contractual considerations for context.

Approach: We approached trust from a philosophical and psychological perspective by first exploring trust’s subjectivity and prevailing viewpoints. Then, we conducted a conceptual analysis of 43 scientific and 12 non-scientific publications. We then used subject matter experts to group concepts and construct ontologies.

Results: The findings of this conceptual analysis revealed that organizational processes, procedures, regulations, and governance are important for trust, yet are under-represented in the scientific literature. We labeled these enterprise sources. From this, we constructed two novel ontologies of trust relationships: a trust antecedent ontology consisting of three socio-technical sources —human, system, and enterprise — and a contract ontology covering context. We used these components to make recommendations for future research, measurements, and modeling. 


Foundations for Operational Trust in Mission Autonomy

As automation becomes increasingly integrated into complex military tasks, its role in supporting human performance under fatigue warrants careful evaluation. A specific military use case in which automatic target recognition (ATR) is being integrated is undersea threat detection (UTD). These types of tasks demand sustained vigilance, accurate classification, and reliable metacognitive judgements. Fatigue, especially due to increased time awake, presents a significant challenge to sustaining high performance. This study investigated whether ATR enhances UTD performance under low fatigue conditions and protects against errors when operators are fatigued, as is common during fleet operations. 
Thirty-six active duty service members completed four sessions of a simulated UTD task, with and without an imperfect ATR system, over a ~24 hour wakeful period. Results showed that ATR did not enhance performance when participants were alert but mitigated the impact of fatigue on detection accuracy. However, fatigue led to decreased metacognitive sensitivity, reflected in greater confidence for false alarms and reduced trust in the ATR system. These findings suggest that while automation can protect basic task performance under fatigue, it does not prevent the degradation of higher-level cognitive processes, such as metacognitive accuracy and trust in automation. 
This study highlights the importance of understanding how automation interacts with cognitive states, especially under fatigue, to optimize its role in critical military operations.

Imperfect Automatic Target Recognition Stabilizes Post-Mission Analysis Performance but not Metacognition and Trust under Increased Time Awake

COSMOS is a state-of-the-art government cloud infrastructure. See firsthand how its capabilities can support DoD customers, boost efficiency, propel AI/ML adoption forward, and drive mission success.

COSMOS: Moving Mission Light Years Ahead

The AI Cyber Challenge recommends the establishment of an advanced cybersecurity program to develop AI tools to find and fix vulnerabilities in critical software. This effort will harness AI's potentially game-changing cyber capabilities to make software and networks more secure.

We used ChatGPT-o1, a generative transformer model, to successfully find and fix patched vulnerabilities in the Linux kernel, confirming the feasibility of our approach. Further, ChatGPT-o1 was able to identify new issues in segments of code in the vicinity of these vulnerabilities, and provided patches for a number of these identified issues.

The challenge is to automate this process for hardening infrastructure code at scale, our ongoong reserch focus.


Automated CVE Patch Analysis and Enhancement Using Generative AI

This presentation presents a novel way to adapt any existing object detection model to a novel domain, without the huge overhead of retraining the detector model. Inspired by how humans quickly acquire knowledge of a new domain (e.g., memorization), we allow the detector to retrieve similar object concepts from memory during test time. This is achieved by a Retrieval Augmented Classification (RAC) module together with a memory bank that can be flexibly updated with new domain knowledge. We have experimented with various off-the-shelf open-set and close-set detectors. With a small memory bank (e.g., 10 images per category) and no training, our online learning method was able to significantly outperform baselines in novel domains.

Online Learning via Memory: Retrieval-Augmented Object Detection

This session will discuss the MAPT ecosystem, its foundational capabilities as well as the critical issues as seen by defense and commercial sectors. Examples include energy efficiency, functional and supply chain security, workforce development and many others.  What will manufacturing and supply chain look like in next 2/5/10/20 years?

MAPT Ecosystem - Core Shared Issues in Edge Compute

DARPA’s Next-Generation Microelectronics Manufacturing program, known as NGMM, aims to unlock accessible prototyping for the microelectronics of tomorrow by establishing the first-ever national center for advancing U.S.-based 3D heterogeneous integration (3DHI).

Given the Agency’s expectation that future innovation hinges on the fusion of diverse materials, devices, and circuits through advanced packaging, 3DHI will be key to U.S. technological leadership. The foundational goal of NGMM: Establish a self-sustaining manufacturing center for R&D and pilot production of high performance 3DHI microelectronics.

DARPA is working with The University of Texas at Austin, and its existing Texas Institute for Electronics (TIE) research center, to establish the TIE NGMM Center (TNC) to support 3DHI microelectronics research, development, and low-volume production.

The Center will leverage partnerships spanning organizations – across the defense industrial base, domestic foundries, vendors and startups, designers and manufacturers, members of academia, and other stakeholders – to achieve a shared vision for national and economic security.

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BELLA – Building Navigable Geospatial Environments at Large scales with Limited Imagery Under Sensor Agnostic Conditions

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