United States

Additive manufacturing of metals is becoming increasingly important in various industrial sectors, including aviation and space, the energy sector and the automotive and toolmaking industries. More so than with other manufacturing processes, the quality of AM components is based on an in-depth understanding of the interactions between the AM process, the resulting material and the component properties.

This lecture will highlight the coaxial nozzle design approach for powder and wire AM of high-grade materials, including light metals, nickel and titanium alloys, bronze, hard metals or high-entropy alloys. Based on the material properties and the desired component specifications, customized processing heads for coaxial feeding of the material to the laser beam at the working position are available, compatible with conventional laser systems and hybrid AM machines. Some nozzles have been optimized for the use in extreme conditions or confined spaces, while others are designed for particularly fine structures or for high-grade materials. In a recent concept, wire and powder filler material have been combined in one head, opening new horizons in 2D and 3D DED manufacturing. Exemplary components for the aerospace industry as well as high productive laser cladding applications for the automotive and oil and gas industry will be discussed.

ICALEO 2024

Combined Wire and Powder DED for Combinatorial Materials Development and High Productivity LAM

additive manufacturing

  #### Welcome to the 43rd annual ICALEO!

Attention laser enthusiasts, innovators, and industry leaders! Get ready to immerse yourself in the exciting world of lasers at the 43rd annual ICALEO conference. This year, we gathered in the iconic city of Hollywood, California, for cutting-edge technology, groundbreaking presentations, and unparalleled networking opportunities.
Whether you're a seasoned professional or new to the field of photonics, the 43rd annual ICALEO had something for everyone. 

#### General Chair Welcome Message

It is with immense joy and anticipation that I extend a warm welcome to each and every one of you as the General Chair of this year's ICALEO conference.

This year, we find ourselves in the iconic setting of Hollywood, serving as a fitting backdrop for the extraordinary developments in laser technology and applications unfolding in our community.

Our main sessions cover a diverse range of topics, from the intricacies of micro and nano processing to the transformative power of laser additive manufacturing. We will explore the frontiers of battery technology, delve into the intricate world of artificial intelligence, and witness the seamless integration of lasers into these realms.

For those joining us for the first time, we extend an especially heartfelt welcome. ICALEO is not just a conference; it's a convergence of minds, ideas, and innovations. Beyond the formal sessions, I encourage you to engage in informal exchanges. The spirit of discovery and camaraderie is as much a part of the ICALEO experience as the scheduled sessions.

Thank you for being a part of ICALEO 2024. Whether you are a returning participant or a first-time attendee, your presence adds immeasurable value to our vibrant community. May this conference be, this year again, a catalyst for inspiration, collaboration, and breakthroughs that will resonate in our community and beyond.

Eric Mottay<br>
Congress General Chair, ICALEO 2024


#### About LIA

The Laser Institute of America (LIA) is the professional society for laser applications and safety. Our mission is to foster lasers, laser applications, and laser safety worldwide. Serving the industrial, medical, research and government communities for over 50 years, LIA offers technical information, training and networking opportunities to laser users
from around the globe.

#### About LIA Conferences

The conferences of the Laser Institute of America are the town square of the laser community. A large and diverse group, laser professionals often find themselves disconnected from each other. LIA conferences, however, bring the university researcher, the business executive and the production floor user together under one roof for a unique and
rewarding networking opportunity.

#### Program Tracks
Below is the list of all tracks that were on ICALEO 2024 Conference.

##### Laser Additive Manufacturing
* The Laser Additive Manufacturing (LAM) track is a forum to explore the latest innovations and research in laser-based additive manufacturing (LAM). The Laser Additive Manufacturing track focuses on diverse topics, including laser-based powder bed fusion (PBF-LB), directed energy deposition (DED), and other emerging techniques revolutionizing modern manufacturing processes. From materials science to process optimization, from design innovation to industrial implementation, this track connects researchers, engineers, and industry leaders to exchange insights and share breakthroughs in laser additive manufacturing.

##### Laser Materials Macroprocessing
* The Macroprocessing track comprises some of the most productive laser processing applications. Although these applications have been broadly adopted, researchers and industry are persistently innovating to provide new techniques and novel technologies to advance macro materials processing. The attendees will share and discuss those exciting achievements of their research with peers in these macroscopic specialized sessions.

##### Laser Materials Microprocessing
* The Microprocessing track will consist of papers and talks featuring a wide spectrum of applications and innovative equipment for materials processing in microscales with a strong focus on processes with Short and Ultrashort Pulsed Lasers. The presentations will introduce the latest and greatest advancements in their respective fields, presented by world-leading companies and research organizations. This year we will have talks around the headlines of “Beam shaping”, “Glass”, “Surface processing” and “Drilling” between other topics.

##### Frontiers in Laser Applications
* The Frontier in Laser Applications (FLA) track explores recent, cutting-edge applications of lasers, highlighting innovation at the transition of research and industry. The track has included presentations from a variety of fields: Novel 3-D Printing, Advanced Manufacturing, Laser Manufactured Devices, and Frontiers in Laser Processing. The sessions under the Frontier in Laser Application track promise to bring diverse and unique perspectives from real-world applications across laser manufacturing.

##### Laser in Battery Manufacturing
* Electrification is crucial to address global environmental challenges. The laser plays a key role in most manufacturing steps in battery production with all possible laser applications from ablation, structuring, welding, cutting, and marking. Further improvements in the batteries’ power densities, fast charging properties, and yield in battery production are related to photonics and, thus, lasers. We will hear and discuss the latest developments in research, development, and industrial applications. Join us for this year’s Battery Track.

##### Artifical Intelligence in Laser Processing
* The track ‘Artificial Intelligence in Laser Processing’ at ICALEO 2024 explores the fusion of AI and laser manufacturing. Discover cutting-edge research on optimizing laser processes and enhancing manufacturing efficiency. Explore AI’s diverse applications in parameter optimization, quality prediction, real-time process monitoring, and control. Join us to unlock the potential of AI-driven solutions revolutionizing laser materials processing, delivering unprecedented precision, productivity, and innovation.
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Attention laser enthusiasts, innovators, and industry leaders! Get ready to immerse yourself in the exciting world of lasers at the 43rd annual ICALEO conference. 

technical paper

The laser peening is a surface treatment technology that improves the mechanical performance of metals. For instance, it has been utilized to increase the resistance of a metal to crack initiation, extend the fatigue life, and enhance the fatigue strength. These effects are imparted by shockwave generated by the expansion of laser-induced ablation plasma. Utilizing double-pulse laser ablation is one of the methods to improve a coupling of the laser beam with the plasma plume and target material. With double-pulse laser ablation, a target material is irradiated by two pulsed laser beams separated by a nanosecond inter-pulse delay time. It is reported that this irradiation method allows for a more effective energy delivery to the plasma plume and target material. In this study, double-pulse laser ablation has been adopted for laser peening. The experiments were performed by two Nd: YAG Q-switched pulsed lasers (wavelength: 532 nm) in water ambient. Austenitic stainless steel SUS316L was used as the target sample. The pulse durations of the first pulse and second pulse were 6 and 4 ns, respectively. Varying the inter-pulse delay time, the surface hardness on the sample after laser peening was evaluated. The results indicated that the surface hardness depends on the inter-pulse delay time. It is found that optimizing the inter-pulse delay time for a double-pulse laser enables enhancement of the laser peening effect.

Double-Pulse Laser Peening as a Surface Enhancement Technology

Pure copper has antimicrobial effect, and the development of pure copper coating technology for product surfaces is needed to prevent the spread of infections. To achieve high antimicrobial performance in coatings, it is essential to form a coating with high copper purity and minimal defects. In this study, we attempted to form a pure copper coating layer on a SS304 substrate using multi-beam directed energy deposition with blue diode lasers. In the coating layer formation process, multiple bead layers are overlapped to form a smooth surface and two different types of joining is conducted simultaneously: the similar material joining area with the remelted previous layer, and the dissimilar material joining area with the substrate. However, it was challenging to conduct this process for SS304 and pure copper, due to their significantly different thermal properties. Therefore, we varied the hatching distance to control the heat input to both joining areas and investigated the effect on the quality of the coating layer. The results showed that there is an optimal ratio of similar and dissimilar joining areas, at which a high-quality coating layer with few voids and low dilution is formed. Furthermore, antimicrobial tests showed that the pure copper coating layer formed in this study exhibited the antimicrobial performance equivalent to those of a pure copper plate.

Pure Copper Coating by Multi Beam Directed Energy Deposition With Blue Lasers for Antimicrobial Effect

The electrification of the mobility sector is vital to meet the targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Besides battery-based mobility solutions, polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are a promising technology for electrifying drive trains, especially in heavy-duty applications, such as maritime or logistics. Bipolar plates, a key component of PEMFCs, can consist of two stainless-steel foils that must be welded to be gas-tight. In order to join the two metal foils, laser beam welding is the state-of-the-art technology. Current challenges include process instabilities at higher welding speeds, such as the humping effect, which can cause weld seam imperfections. Therefore, applying sensors for laser beam welding is a promising approach to monitor the welding process. AISI 316L foils were welded within the scope of this work with various process parameters using an adjustable ring mode laser beam source. Additionally, an optical microphone was used as a process monitoring system. By applying different parameter settings and due to the introduction of artificial faults, weld seam defects, such as a burn-through or a gap, were induced. After utilizing a noise reduction algorithm for the acoustic signals, numerous features in the time and frequency domain were extracted, with which multiple machine learning algorithms were trained and compared concerning their performance. A light gradient boosting machine was identified as a suitable machine learning model for the weld seam classification. Finally, a hyperparameter tuning was conducted, which resulted in a cross-validation accuracy of 94.78 %, depending on the quality categories considered.

Acoustic Process Monitoring During the Laser Beam Welding of Stainless-Steel Foils Using an Adjustable Ring Mode Laser Beam Source

Busbar welds play a pivotal role in battery pack assembly, as their quality significantly impacts the structural integrity, electrical conductivity, and thermal efficiency of the battery pack. Current in-line quality evaluation methods encompass diverse techniques, including resistance measurement, thermographic imaging for fusion area assessment, machine vision for weld surface scanning, and monitoring of spectral line intensities during the welding process. This research delves into the efficacy of several approaches across various production scenarios, considering the inherent variations in the production processes. Typical variations in laser power, gap condition, laser focus condition, surface contamination, weld location etc are considered and result in welds with different qualities. Process spectrum, weld surface morphology and resistance measurement data are meticulously analyzed by correlating them with joint strength derived from tensile testing. Porosity distributions characterized by X-ray are used for quality evaluation. The study reveals that weld surface morphology from machine vision and spectral line intensity data exhibit strong correlations with process variations and weld strength. Conversely, resistance data proves to be less sensitive to process changes and does not correlate well with weld strength and porosity levels. In summarizing the findings, this study offers recommendations on effective in-line inspection for ensuring the quality of busbar welds in production environments.

Study of In-line Busbar Weld Quality Inspection Methods

Significant research efforts have been undertaken over the past forty years to replace cobalt-based StelliteTM alloys, which offer outstanding performance when used as hardfacing coatings, but have proved problematic in radioactive environments. The aim of this work is to contribute to this effort by proposing viable substitutes made from multi-principal element alloys (MPEAs). Laser cladding process has demonstrates its very good capacity to generate deposit with high tribological properties. Moreover, a large number of compositions can be generated in different samples or samples with graded compositions thanks to the inline fusion of powders provided from different powder feeders. Combined with an intensive use of the thermodynamic calculation using CALPHAD (Thermo-Calc) method, this strategy considerably accelerates material development compared with more conventional methods. Initial work has highlighted the (CrFeNi)90Mo5Ti5 alloy as a promising base that relies on the formation of intermetallic phases within a ductile matrix for increased hardness and improved tribological behavior. The optimization of the composition made by tuning of the hard phase (sigma phase) in the material, which is driven by the combination of Mo,Cr and Fe elements. The proposed iterative process of calculation, experimentation and material characterization demonstrates the possibility of tailoring material composition to functional properties comparable or even better than the Stellite 6 alloy.

Results on Combinatorial Design and Manufacturing by Laser Cladding of Cobalt-free Hardfacing Multi-Principle Element Alloys

The aerospace industry is constantly seeking new advanced materials with high-temperature properties. Since turbine engines are subject to arduous operating conditions, the alloys used for this application are required to exhibit high fatigue, creep, oxidation, and corrosion resistances. The emerging high-entropy alloys (HEAs) show a positive potential for replacing nickel superalloys in turbine components. High-entropy alloys are composed of five or more principal elements that generate simple crystal structures-mostly BCC and FCC – that are stable at elevated temperatures. High entropy alloy fabrication typically employs traditional methods, which impose strong limitations on geometric freedom and microstructure control. Additive manufacturing represents a promising alternative since it allows for some of the drawbacks associated with subtractive technologies. In this research, AlCoCr2FeMo0.5Ni high entropy alloy was processed using Laser Direct Energy Deposition technology with the aim of achieving a homogeneous deposition, free of defects and well adherent to the substrate. Single-track and multi-track tests were carried out with different combinations of laser power, scanning speed and powder feed rate. A preliminary evaluation of the results using the optical microscope revealed a correlation between the defects and the process parameters, enabling the identification of the optimal print setup. An in-depth analysis under a scanning electron microscope was performed to assess the microstructure and distribution of alloying elements. Additionally, microhardness tests were carried out to confirm the uniformity of phases within the deposition. Finally, the topography of the layer was assessed and correlated to process parameters in view of a future multi-layer approach.

Influence of Process Parameters on the Properties of AlCoCr2FeMo0.5Ni High-Entropy Alloy Coatings Produced by Laser Direct Energy Deposition

Lightweight alloys such as aluminum alloy and magnesium alloy have garnered significant attention due to their widespread use in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, and marine applications. These applications usually require excellent corrosion performance of the alloys. Laser surface treatment (LST) has emerged as a promising surface modification technique to enhance the corrosion resistance of these alloys for its automation and reproducibility. In this study, the effects of LST based on a nanosecond pulsed laser on the corrosion resistance of lightweight metal alloys, specifically AA6061 and AZ31, were studied. LST was performed underwater, using the nanosecond laser and without using a protective coating or layer on the workpiece. The corrosion behaviors of these alloys were analyzed through electrochemical tests, including open circuit potential (OCP), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) measurements. The results demonstrated that LST significantly improved the polarization resistance, and higher laser power intensities led to increased corrosion resistance and reduced corrosion rates. This enhancement in anti-corrosion performance is attributed to the formation of a protective oxide layer on the surface, acting as a barrier against corrosion. The findings underscore the potential of laser surface treatment as a viable technique for enhancing the corrosion resistance of lightweight metal alloys.

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Double-Pulse Laser Peening as a Surface Enhancement Technology

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