Thailand

This paper describes the organization and findings of AXOLOTL&#39;24, the first multilingual explainable semantic change modeling shared task. We present new sense-annotated diachronic semantic change datasets for Finnish and Russian which were employed in the shared task, along with a surprise test-only German dataset borrowed from an existing source. The setup of AXOLOTL&#39;24 is new to the semantic change modeling field, and involves subtasks of identifying unknown (novel) senses and providing dictionary-like definitions to these senses. The methods of the winning teams are described and compared, thus paving a path towards explainability in computational approaches to historical change of meaning.

ACL 2024

AXOLOTL’24 Shared Task on Multilingual Explainable Semantic Change Modeling

explainable semantic change detection

finnish

shared task

russian

german

This paper describes the organization and findings of AXOLOTL'24, the first multilingual explainable semantic change modeling shared task. We present new sense-annotated diachronic semantic change datasets for Finnish and Russian which were employed in the shared task, along with a surprise test-only German dataset borrowed from an existing source. The setup of AXOLOTL'24 is new to the semantic change modeling field, and involves subtasks of identifying unknown (novel) senses and providing dictionary-like definitions to these senses. The methods of the winning teams are described and compared, thus paving a path towards explainability in computational approaches to historical change of meaning.

workshop paper

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This paper investigates edge induction as a method for augmenting Word Usage Graphs, in which word usages (nodes) are connected through scores (edges) representing semantic relatedness. Clustering (densely) annotated WUGs can be used as a way to find senses of a word without relying on traditional word sense annotation. However, annotating all or a majority of pairs of usages is typically infeasible, resulting in sparse graphs and, likely, lower quality senses. In this paper, we ask if filling out WUGs with edges predicted from the human annotated edges improves the eventual clusters. We experiment with edge induction models that use structural features of the existing sparse graph, as well as those that exploit textual (distributional) features of the usages. We find that in both cases, inducing edges prior to clustering improves correlation with human sense-usage annotation across three different clustering algorithms and languages.

Improving Word Usage Graphs with Edge Induction

We present our submission to the AXOLOTL-24 shared task. The shared task comprises two subtasks: identifying new senses that words gain with time (when comparing newer and older time periods) and producing the definitions for the identified new senses. We implemented a conceptually simple and computationally inexpensive solution to both subtasks. We trained adapter-based binary classification models to match glosses with usage examples and leveraged the probability output of the models to identify novel senses. The same models were used to match examples of novel sense usages with Wiktionary definitions. Our submission attained third place on the first subtask and the first place on the second subtask.

TartuNLP @ AXOLOTL-24: Leveraging Classifier Output for New Sense Detection in Lexical Semantics

Etymology, and the field of lexicography, is often constrained by unstructured data formats buried in scholarly articles and dictionaries. This paper presents a methodology and an empirical study for creating a structured etymological dataset suitable for computational analysis. Using data from the Online Etymology Dictionary (Etymonline), we manually annotated a subset of entries to establish a high-quality ground-truth dataset and fine-tuned the FLAN-T5-base model to extract structured etymological relationships automatically. The resulting dataset contains over 103,000 relationships covering 63,603 English lexical terms. Our findings emphasise feasibility of using large language models for structuring lexicographical data, exploring the transferability of the model to other dictionary datasets with no additional manual annotation.

EtymoLink: A Structured English Etymology Dataset

This paper explores the intersection of lexical complexity prediction and lexical semantic change detection. We investigate the potential connection between changes in lexical complexity and lexical semantics, aiming to uncover how these two aspects of language evolution are intertwined. Our findings indicate that lexical complexity models human annotator uncertainty surprisingly well. Further, we find a moderate correlation between changes in lexical complexity and graded lexical semantic change. This highlights the potential for leveraging lexical complexity for lexical semantic change detection.

Complexity and Indecision: A Proof-of-Concept Exploration of Lexical Complexity and Lexical Semantic Change

This paper describes our solution of the first subtask from the AXOLOTL-24 shared task on Semantic Change Modeling. The goal of this subtask is to distribute a given set of usages of an ambiguous word from a newer time period between senses of this word from an older time period given as a set of sense definitions and some undefined number of clusters that should represent gained senses of this word. We propose and experiment with three new methods solving this task. Our methods achieve SOTA results according to both official metrics of the shared task. Additionally, we develop a model that can tell if a given word usage is not described by any of the provided sense definitions. This model serves as a component in one of our methods, but can potentially be useful on its own.

Deep-change at AXOLOTL-24: Orchestrating WSD and WSI Models for Semantic Change Modeling

Computational and human perception are often considered separate approaches for studying sound changes over time; few works have touched on the intersection of both. To fill this research gap, we provide a pioneering review contrasting computational with human perception from the perspectives of methods and tasks. Overall, computational approaches rely on computer-driven models to perceive historical sound changes on etymological datasets, while human approaches use listener-driven models to perceive ongoing sound changes on recording corpora. Despite their differences, both approaches complement each other on phonetic and acoustic levels, showing the potential to achieve a more comprehensive perception of sound change. Moreover, we call for a comparative study on the datasets used by both approaches to investigate the influence of historical sound changes on ongoing changes. Lastly, we discuss the applications of sound change in computational linguistics, and point out that perceiving sound change alone is insufficient, as many processes of language change are complex, with entangled changes at syntactic, semantic, and phonetic levels.

Exploring Sound Change Over Time: A Review of Computational and Human Perception

Lexical Semantic Change Detection (LSCD) aims to detect language change from a diachronic corpus over time. We can see that over the last two decades there has been a surge in research dealing with the LSC Detection. Recently, a series of methods especially contextualized word embeddings have been widely established to address this task. While several studies have investigated LSCD using large language models (LLMs), an evaluation of prompt engineering techniques, such as few-shot learning with different in-context examples for improving the LSCD performance is required. In this study, we examine the few-shot learning ability of GPT-4 to detect semantic changes in the Chinese language change evaluation dataset ChiWUG. We show that our LLM-based solution improves the GCD evaluation metric on the ChiWUG benchmark compared to the previously top-performing pre-trained system. The result suggests that using GPT-4 with three-shot learning with hand-picked demonstrations achieves the best performance among our different prompts.

A Few-shot Learning Approach for Lexical Semantic Change Detection Using GPT-4

Children from bilingual backgrounds benefit from interactions with parents and teachers to re-acquire their heritage language. In this paper, we investigate how this insight from behavioral study can be incorporated into the learning of small-scale language models. We introduce BAMBINO-LM, a continual pre-training strategy for BabyLM that uses a novel combination of alternation and PPO-based perplexity reward induced from a parent Italian model. Upon evaluation on zero-shot classification tasks for English and Italian, BAMBINO-LM improves the Italian language capability of a BabyLM baseline. Our ablation analysis demonstrates that employing both the alternation strategy and PPO-based modeling is key to this effectiveness gain. We also show that, as a side effect, the proposed method leads to a similar degradation in L1 effectiveness as human children would have had in an equivalent learning scenario. Through its modeling and findings, BAMBINO-LM makes a focused contribution to the pre-training of small-scale language models by first developing a human-inspired strategy for pre-training and then showing that it results in behaviours similar to that of humans.

BAMBINO-LM: (Bilingual-)Human-Inspired Continual Pretraining of BabyLM

Recent psycholinguistic theories emphasize the interdependence between linguistic expectations and memory limitations in human language processing. We modify the self-attention mechanism of a transformer model to simulate a lossy context representation, biasing the model's predictions to give additional weight to the local linguistic context. We show that surprisal estimates from our locally-biased model generally provide a better fit to human psychometric data, underscoring the sensitivity of the human parser to local linguistic information.

Locally Biased Transformers Better Align with Human Reading Times

It is unclear whether large language models (LLMs) develop humanlike characteristics in language use. We subjected ChatGPT and Vicuna to 12 pre-registered psycholinguistic experiments ranging from sounds to dialogue. ChatGPT and Vicuna replicated the human pattern of language use in 10 and 7 out of the 12 experiments, respectively. The models associated unfamiliar words with different meanings depending on their forms, continued to access recently encountered meanings of ambiguous words, reused recent sentence structures, attributed causality as a function of verb semantics, and accessed different meanings and retrieved different words depending on an interlocutor’s identity. In addition, ChatGPT, but not Vicuna, nonliterally interpreted implausible sentences that were likely to have been corrupted by noise, drew reasonable inferences, and overlooked semantic fallacies in a sentence. Finally, unlike humans, neither model preferred using shorter words to convey less informative content, nor did they use context to resolve syntactic ambiguities. We discuss how these convergences and divergences may result from the transformer architecture. Overall, these experiments demonstrate that LLMs such as ChatGPT (and Vicuna to a lesser extent) are humanlike in many aspects of human language processing.

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AXOLOTL’24 Shared Task on Multilingual Explainable Semantic Change Modeling

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Improving Word Usage Graphs with Edge Induction

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