United States

In laser metal deposition (LMD), the powder is fed into the laser-induced melt pool using different powder nozzles for the purpose of additive manufacturing and the generation of wear and corrosion protection coatings. So far, there are no industrially established in-process monitoring systems for the powder stream, but mainly measuring systems that examine the powder stream propagation offline and without the processing laser. A challenge in implementing an image-based in-process monitoring system is the process illumination, for the segmentation of the powder particles from the background radiation caused by the processing laser and the melt pool. To overcome this challenge, filtering is needed to attenuate the process emissions and simultaneously brighten the powder stream. Therefore, this work focuses on generating a continuous high contrast between the powder and the background. The powder particles are illuminated by a light source mounted laterally to the powder stream in the horizontal plane below the nozzle opening to make the reflecting powder particles visible to the camera. The optical process emissions were characterized during LMD with respect to the influence of an increasing laser power which was presented in correlation to the increasing process emissions. The evaluation of the spectrograms has made it possible, due to the adapted illumination and filtering, to ensure a constantly high contrast between the process emissions and the powder, so that online monitoring of the powder stream was implemented successfully during the LMD process despite the active processing laser.

ICALEO 2023

Characterization of Optical Emissions During Laser Metal Deposition for the Implementation of an In-Process Powder Stream Monitoring

powder stream

online monitoring

laser metal deposition

optical emission spectroscopy

technical paper

**General Chair Welcome**

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Welcome to ICALEO® 2023!
	
We were excited to host the world’s leading international conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics in Chicago. The Laser has been shown to have the potential to revolutionize solutions for major global challenges like energy usage and supply, global warming, and CO2 footprint. Even the fusion energy breakthrough is based on laser technology. The conference, with peer-reviewed scientific and technical presentations, focused on the newest results in Micro Applications, Macro Applications, Additive Manufacturing, Beam Shaping and Frontiers in Laser Applications. Additionally, the Battery-Manufacturing Track gave an overview of the process combined with the newest advances in laser application results. 

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Whether this is the first time you are hearing about ICALEO or you are a longtime attendee, you will find something of interest, new ideas, and an excellent opportunity to network with other laser specialists worldwide. 

**Klaus Löffler **  
ICALEO General Chair   
Managing Director, Precitec GmbH

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ICALEO® brings together the brightest minds, seasoned professionals, and pioneering researchers from around the world. With a laser-focused agenda, ICALEO offers an exceptional platform to delve into the cutting-edge advancements, diverse applications, and transformative research that define lasers and electro-optics.

Controlling heat transfer in casting tools is a key quality aspect. It can be improved by selectively applying volumetric aluminium bronze (CuAl9.5Fe1.2) sections in the core of the tools and subsequently depositing these cores with hard-facing H13 tool steel. Directed energy deposition (DED) can be used for both additive manufacturing of aluminium bronze and hard-facing by depositing the filler-material onto a substrate-surface or previously manufactured bodies. A sufficient metallurgical bonding of the deposited filler-material and the underlying layer must be ensured. However, high dilution of the underlying layer and the filler-material negatively affects the desired properties and must be monitored. Optical emission spectroscopy of the DED process-emissions, is investigated by comparing the emission-lines of the individual elements comprising the base and the filler-materials. 
Multiple single tracks using aluminium bronze as the filler-material are laser cladded with varying power, onto the two different types of substrates i.e. mild steel (S355) and hot working tool steel (1.2343). Additionally, single tracks of H13 are deposited with varying laser powers onto an additively manufactured core of aluminium bronze. Both resulting in deposition-tracks with varying dilution values. Multiple emission-lines of Cr, Fe, Cu, Al and Mn are detected and measured (line-intensity). Line‑intensity‑ratios using the element-emission-lines are calculated and correlated with the respective metallographic results of the deposition-tracks (dilution and chemical composition). Deposition-tracks with a higher dilution (CuAl9.5Fe1.2 onto S355/1.2343 as well as H13 onto CuAl9.5Fe1.2) showed an increased line‑intensity-ratio of the underlying-material to the filler‑material. Moreover, this technology was transferred in a multilayer industrial application.

Monitoring the Degree of Dilution During Directed Energy Deposition of Aluminium Bronze and H13 Tool Steel Using Optical Emission Spectroscopy

Directed Energy Deposition is an additive manufacturing process that allows the production of near net shape structures. Moreover, the process can also be applied for the repair of high value components. To obtain structures with consistent good characteristics, the Directed Energy Deposition process requires the implementation of a control system. The current applied approaches for control that are discussed in literature have specifically focus on melt pool temperature control. Pyrometers have been used for such purpose; however, they provide only a single scalar value without any spatial information. In this paper the implementation of a high-speed hyperspectral camera-based system is discussed with a high spatial resolution unlike the pyrometers. Different calibration and temperature estimation procedures for this camera-based system are evaluated and analyzed. The number of effective wavelengths needed for temperature estimation will be discussed in detail and provide an outlook to the potential of this hyperspectral camera-based system. In addition to the number of wavelengths, another important aspect of the temperature estimation methods is the stability with respect to disturbances. Within this paper the impact of different parameters such as: the scanning strategy, the nominal laser power will be evaluated on the stability of the temperature signals for a control system.

Comparison and Analysis of Hyperspectral Temperature Data in Directed Energy Deposition

The rapid growth of electric vehicle industry requires reliable high-speed and high-quality manufacturing processes. One of the important components of the electric vehicles is the motor which incorporates a large quantity of welds to join wires. These wires are insulated with a variety of polymers to prevent shorts in the motor. Insulation removal and stripping are essential to achieve welds with acceptable electrical and mechanical properties. However, conventional mechanical stripping of insulated hairpin wires is inadequate for high-speed mass production due to the slow process speed, poor surface quality, long-term tool wear, and production line interruptions. The use of a CO2 laser for stripping the polymer followed by laser welding as an alternative can address speed limitations of conventional mechanical methods. However, single-step CO2 laser stripping is known to leave a thin polymeric residue on the copper surface that may result in welding defects such as excessive porosity formation, brittleness, and excessive spatter and therefore not acceptable. Herein, a two-step stripping and cleaning process using CO2 and UV lasers is introduced that enables effective insulator removal to achieve low-defect low-spatter welds. Analytical techniques are utilized to assess the surface quality and correlate that with weld quality. Results will be presented.

Novel Laser Stripping and Cleaning Approach to Enhance Laser Welding Quality of Electric Motor Hairpins

High power lasers have become an industry standard for electric drive manufacturing as has the common design of such motors, called ‘hairpin motors’. The term refers to the structure of the windings and&nbsp;has been adapted by all relevant automotive OEM and suppliers. TRUMPF is by far technology leader in this specific manufacturing area and a vital part to all new developments. 
Highly integrated lasersystems are utilized, including high power cw lasers with beam shaping and high beam qualities, scanning optics and camera based as well as OCT sensors for weld joint and seam tracking. 
In this work we are presenting the latest advancements meant for moving away from static processing strategies and parameter sets towards adaptive and automated processing taking into account the challenges specifically evolving from parts clamping and tolerances. By adjusting the processing strategy based on acquired measurement data the welding results were successfully stabilized under the presence misalignments. Typical misalignment types ‘gap between pins’, ‘lateral offsets’ and ‘height differences’ were simulated and welded in different variations. To prove the effectiveness of adaption, a comparison of static welding results to the ones of adapted welding has been carried out. The process of compiling the adapted strategies to level misalignments will be demonstrated. Evaluations have been carried out looking into joint strength, weld sections, porosity formation and weld seam shape and will be shown in this presentation. Finally, a generalizable systematic on adapted processing strategies will be derived based on results of further, different wire types.

Systematics for Increasing the Robustness of the Welding Process of Electric Drive Copper Hairpin Windings

We investigate the impact of femtosecond laser wavelengths on the properties of inscribed Nd: Y3Al5O12 (Nd: YAG) waveguide lasers. The flexibility and adaptability of femtosecond laser inscription have garnered significant interest due to numerous possibilities for 3D micrometric scale modification within dielectric materials. By controlling writing parameters such as pulse energy, translation velocity, and track separation, we can control the laser-matter interaction process and the resulting waveguide properties. However, the impact of the source wavelength on the resulting micro-modifications inside crystalline materials has been relatively unexplored until now. 
We conducted a comparative study of double-track Nd: YAG waveguide lasers inscribed with femtosecond laser pulses at 515 and 1030 nm, examining the effects of the source wavelength on micro-modifications. Our results indicate that the modification threshold was around 0.06 µJ for the 515-nm source, while it increased by five times to 0.3 µJ for the 1030-nm source. We also observed differences in track shapes and depths for varying pulse energy. A propagation loss lower than 0.2 dB/cm was achieved for both wavelengths – it is the lowest value reported for similar waveguides inside Nd: YAG crystal. The lasing efficiency is 41 % and 15% for the wavelength of 1030 and 515nm, respectively, at 20 % output coupler; the corresponding pump-power thresholds are 9 and 22 mW. The impacts of scanning speeds and track separations on propagation loss, refractive index change, and lasing performance will be presented.

Guiding and Lasing Comparison of Nd: YAG Waveguide Lasers by Femtosecond Laser Inscription at 515 and 1030 NM

In this study, we develop mid-infrared (MIR) waveguides and beamsplitters for applications such as spectroscopy, chemical sensing, and remote sensing using ultrafast laser inscription (ULI) within chalcogenide glass IG2 (Ge33As12Se55). MIR photonic integrated circuits (PICs) enable compact and efficient optical layouts. IG2 glass is ideal for MIR PICs because of its broad transparency window, low absorption, and compatibility with atmospheric windows at 3-5 and 8-12 µm. 
The waveguiding properties at 1.064 µm (Near-IR) and 4.55 µm (MIR) were investigated by examining the effects of inscription parameters and geometries, particularly the impact of pulse energy and the number of layers for a multi-scan strategy on the mode confinement and the morphology the waveguide cross-section. We determine that higher pulse energy or a higher number of layers is required to achieve guided modes at the longer wavelength. For example, for the single-layer configuration, the threshold pulse energy that enables the guided modes at the 1.064 and 4.55-µm wavelength is 3 and 6 nJ, respectively. Mode confinement at MIR was further achieved at 6nJ when two or more vertical layers were applied, achieving a minimum propagation loss of 1.8 dB/cm with a four-layer configuration. Waveguides with cross-sections larger than two layers exhibited higher-order modes at MIR in addition to the fundamental mode. We further demonstrate MIR 1x4 beamsplitters, achieving uniform splitting ratios of over 96 %. Our results highlight the potential of ULI-inscribed IG2 waveguides and beamsplitters for developing mid-infrared photonic devices and integrated circuits.

Mid-IR Waveguide Beamsplitters in IG2 Glass by Ultrafast Laser Inscription

Ultrashort pulse (USP) lasers, with pulse widths measured in femtosecond to picosecond, are widely used for machining or cutting materials of all kinds.&nbsp; Today’s newest USP lasers offer high output power (&gt;100W), with high pulse energy and high pulse repetition rate.&nbsp;&nbsp; When machining or marking metals, which have low ablation threshold and high thermal conductivity, low pulse energy and high pulse repetition rate typically give the best results.&nbsp; In contrast, when processing materials such as glass or polymers which can have high ablation threshold and low thermal conductivity, it is best to use high laser pulse energy and low pulse repetition rate. &nbsp;However, regardless of the material being processed, when total output power of the laser exceeds about 50W, thermal damage to the processing material (HAZ) can easily occur.&nbsp; Spreading laser power distribution across the target material becomes critical.&nbsp; This is typically achieved using higher scan speed, split beam processing, diffractive optics, or a combination of these. We discuss methods currently being used to effectively distribute &gt;100W laser power across a processing surface, to utilize the full power capacity of today’s USP lasers, and we present experimental results achieved with our newest 140W HyperRapid picosecond laser, and 150W Monaco femtosecond laser.

Laser Processing with femtosecond and picosecond at 150W

Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the production of complex geometries with superior properties compared to traditional manufacturing methods. However, the high roughness and poor wettability of as-produced surfaces of AM parts limit their suitability for certain applications. To address this, we present a maskless laser-assisted surface functionalization method to improve the wettability of metal 3D printed parts. 
This study explores the potential of combining metal AM with surface wettability patterning, a promising technique in fluid-related fields. Large area AlSi10Mg parts were fabricated using laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF), followed by an innovative laser-assisted functionalization (LAF) method to achieve patterned wetting surfaces. The LAF method consists of laser texturing and chemical modification steps, and two strategies were demonstrated to fabricate different types of wettability patterns. Strategy I produces two types of superhydrophobicity, while Strategy II creates a superhydrophobic-superhydrophilic patterned surface. The study demonstrates the simplicity, robustness, and feasibility of the process, and analyzes the processing mechanism, surface topography, and surface chemistry. The integration of surface wettability patterning and 3D-printing can optimize components to enhance performance and efficiency by creating intricate fluid flow pathways. Overall, this work highlights the potential of combining metal AM with surface wettability patterning, providing a pathway to produce high-performance parts with tailored wettability properties. This research has significant implications for fluid-related industries such as aerospace, automotive, and energy, as it offers unparalleled design freedom and the ability to create complex geometries.

Surface Wettability Patterning of Metal Additive Manufactured Parts via Laser-assisted Functionalization

In this study, the application of the ABA cladding strategy to coaxial wire-based cladding processes is investigated. Individual weld seams (A) are first welded on the substrate and additional weld seams (B) are deposited into the intermediate spaces in the second step. Thereby two different seam geometries are present in the cladding. Unidirectional AAA and ABA claddings are generated using laser hot-wire cladding and analyzed with respect to the quality criteria height, waviness, degree of dilution and defects. Three different welding parameter sets are used to consider the effect of the contact angle on the applicability of the ABA cladding strategy. 
 
When the same process parameters and seam-to-seam offsets are used for the ABA cladding as for the AAA cladding, the B weld seams are higher than the A weld seams and an uneven ridged cladding surface is present. Two approaches to solving this problem are considered. The cross-sectional area of the B weld seams is reduced by adjusting the welding speeds or an increase of the seam-to-seam offset. Both measures result in a significant reduction in waviness of 30% to 58% compared to the AAA cladding. However, lack of fusion defects occur more frequently after deposition of the B weld seams. It was therefore necessary to adjust the process parameters for weld seam B.

Application of the ABA Cladding Technique to a Wire Based Laser Cladding Process

This study examines the impact of wobble movement on a LASER beam's behavior while moving over an AISI 316L stainless steel sample of 1.2 mm thickness. The LASER beam oscillatory movement is superimposed on linear movement using a 400 W fiber LASER installed on an experimental bench equipped with a scanner and worktable. Mathematical modeling estimates instantaneous beam speed values, predicting thermal influence on weld bead aspects. Micro-welding experiments use autogenous modeling with lateral beam oscillation. Two forms of overlapping transverse wobble are tested: one with a circular path and the other describing a path like the mathematical symbol “infinity.” Correlations are evidenced between the parameters used and results obtained in the micro-welds, including penetration and width of the beads. Results show that the frequency of movement in a circle and in “infinity” for frequencies from 200 to 400 Hz has no significant influence on the result. Increasing the amplitude of the wobble movement from 0.5 to 2 mm significantly influences the width and depth of the strands generated. The wobble technique is effective in preventing discontinuities in the process such as porosity. A bead obtained with 300 W, 50 mm/s, 0.5 mm overlapping wobble movement, and 300 Hz circular rotation frequency showed the highest relationship between width and depth.

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Characterization of Optical Emissions During Laser Metal Deposition for the Implementation of an In-Process Powder Stream Monitoring

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Monitoring the Degree of Dilution During Directed Energy Deposition of Aluminium Bronze and H13 Tool Steel Using Optical Emission Spectroscopy

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