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Active learning (AL) aims to reduce labeling costs by querying the examples most beneficial for model learning. While the effectiveness of AL for fine-tuning transformer-based pre-trained language models (PLMs) has been demonstrated, it is less clear to what extent the AL gains obtained with one model transfer to others. We consider the problem of transferability of actively acquired datasets in text classification and investigate whether AL gains persist when a dataset built using AL coupled with a specific PLM is used to train a different PLM. We link the AL dataset transferability to the similarity of instances queried by the different PLMs and show that AL methods with similar acquisition sequences produce highly transferable datasets regardless of the models used. Additionally, we show that the similarity of acquisition sequences is influenced more by the choice of the AL method than the choice of the model.

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ACL 2023

On Dataset Transferability in Active Learning for Transformers

dataset transfer

transformers

active learning

### Welcome to ACL 2023, the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics! 
<br>The conference will be held in Toronto, Canada, July 9-14, 2023.<br><br>
Following the succession of the recent conferences in our field, ACL 2023 will adopt a hybrid format.
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enormous contributions to the conference over the past year.

Read [**ACL 2023 General Chair's message**](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1WobYM7norbG4dI48s75HfJoD89qgX5a_F-6U8AteLSA/edit?usp=sharing/) in full.

##### **[Conference Handbook](https://2023.aclweb.org/downloads/acl2023-handbook.pdf)**
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The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is the premier international scientific and professional society for people working on computational problems involving human language, a field often referred to as either computational linguistics or natural language processing.

Active learning (AL) aims to reduce labeling costs by querying the examples most beneficial for model learning. While the effectiveness of AL for fine-tuning transformer-based pre-trained language models (PLMs) has been demonstrated, it is less clear to what extent the AL gains obtained with one model transfer to others. We consider the problem of transferability of actively acquired datasets in text classification and investigate whether AL gains persist when a dataset built using AL coupled with a specific PLM is used to train a different PLM. We link the AL dataset transferability to the similarity of instances queried by the different PLMs and show that AL methods with similar acquisition sequences produce highly transferable datasets regardless of the models used. Additionally, we show that the similarity of acquisition sequences is influenced more by the choice of the AL method than the choice of the model.

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poster

Large language models are very resource intensive, both financially and environmentally, and require an amount of training data which is simply unobtainable for the majority of NLP practitioners. Previous work has researched the scaling laws of such models, but optimal ratios of model parameters, dataset size, and computation costs focused on the large scale. In contrast, we analyze the effect those variables have on the performance of language models in constrained settings, by building three lightweight BERT models (16M/51M/124M parameters) trained over a set of small corpora (5M/25M/125M words).We experiment on four languages of different linguistic characteristics (Basque, Spanish, Swahili and Finnish), and evaluate the models on MLM and several NLU tasks. We conclude that the power laws for parameters, data and compute for low-resource settings differ from the optimal scaling laws previously inferred, and data requirements should be higher. Our insights are consistent across all the languages we study, as well as across the MLM and downstream tasks. Furthermore, we experimentally establish when the cost of using a Transformer-based approach is worth taking, instead of favouring other computationally lighter solutions.

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Scaling Laws for BERT in Low-Resource Settings

The task of textual geolocation retrieving the coordinates of a place based on a free-form language description calls for not only grounding but also natural language understanding and geospatial reasoning. Even though there are quite a few datasets in English used for geolocation, they are currently based on open-source data (Wikipedia and Twitter), where the location of the described place is mostly implicit, such that the location retrieval resolution is limited. Furthermore, there are no datasets available for addressing the problem of textual geolocation in morphologically rich and resource-poor languages, such as Hebrew. In this paper, we present the Hebrew Geo-Location (HeGeL) corpus, designed to collect literal place descriptions and analyze lingual geospatial reasoning. We crowdsourced 5,649 literal Hebrew place descriptions of various place types in three cities in Israel. Qualitative and empirical analysis show that the data exhibits abundant use of geospatial reasoning and requires a novel environmental representation.

HeGeL: A Novel Dataset for Geo-Location from Hebrew Text

Recent studies have pointed out that many well-developed Visual Question Answering (VQA) systems suffer from bias problem. Despite the remarkable performance gained on In-Distribution (ID) datasets, the VQA model might merely capture the superficial correlation from question to answer rather than showing real reasoning abilities. Therefore, when switching to Out-of-Distribution (OOD) dataset, whose test distribution is unknown or even reversed with the training set, significant drops might be demonstrated.Although efforts have been devoted to easing the negative bias effect brought by language prior and analysing its inherent cause, they are still limited by the following two aspects. First, most current debiasing methods achieve promising OOD generalization ability with a major sacrifice of the ID performance. Second, existing researches are restricted by exploiting comprehensive biases, since weakening the language bias is mainly focused, while only a few works consider vision bias. In this paper, we investigate a straightforward way to mitigate bias problem for VQA task. Specifically, we reduce bias effect by subtracting bias score from standard VQA base score. Based on such a direct strategy, we design two bias learning branches to detect more bias information, which are combined with a dynamical constraint loss to alleviate the problem of over-correction and insufficient debiasing effect. We evaluate our method on the challenging VQA v2.0 and VQA-CP V2,0 datasets and the proposed method achievessignificant improvement.

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A Multi-modal Debiasing Model with Dynamical Constraint for Robust Visual Question Answering

We introduce the task of correcting named entity recognition (NER) errors without re-training model.After an NER model is trained and deployed in production,it makes prediction errors, which usually need to be fixed quickly.To address this problem, we firstly construct a gazetteer containing named entities and corresponding possible entity types.And then, we propose type enhanced BERT (TyBERT),a method that integrates the named entity's type information into BERT by an adapter layer.When errors are identified, we can repair the model by updating the gazetteer.In other words, the gazetteer becomes a trigger to control NER model's output.The experiment results in multiple corpus show the effectiveness of our method, which outperforms strong baselines.x

Type Enhanced BERT for Correcting NER Errors

Recent years have witnessed a growing interest in investigating what Transformer-based language models (TLMs) actually learn from the training data. This is especially relevant for complex tasks such as the understanding of non-literal meaning. In this work, we probe the performance of three black-box TLMs and two intrinsically transparent white-box models on figurative language classification of sarcasm, similes, idioms, and metaphors. We conduct two studies on the classification results to provide insights into the inner workings of such models. With our first analysis on feature importance, we identify crucial differences in model behavior. With our second analysis using an online experiment with human participants, we inspect different linguistic characteristics of the four figurative language types.

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Figurative Language Processing: A Linguistically Informed Feature Analysis of the Behavior of Language Models and Humans

The chain-of-though (CoT) prompting methods were successful in various natural language processing (NLP) tasks thanks to their ability to unveil the underlying complex reasoning processes.Such reasoning processes typically exhibit highly structured steps.Recent efforts also started investigating methods to encourage more structured reasoning procedures to be captured (cite least to most).In this work, we propose Tab-CoT, a novel tabular-format CoT prompting method, which allows the complex reasoning process to be explicitly modeled in a highly structured manner.Despite its simplicity, we show that our approach is capable of performing reasoning across multiple dimensions (i.e., both rows and columns).We demonstrate our approach's strong zero-shot and few-shot capabilities through extensive experiments on a range of reasoning tasks.

Tab-CoT: Zero-shot Tabular Chain of Thought

Most text-to-SQL models, even though based on the same grammar decoder, generate the SQL structure first and then fill in the SQL slots with the correct schema items. This second step depends on schema linking: aligning the entity references in the question with the schema columns or tables. This is generally approached via Exact Match based Schema Linking (EMSL) within a neural network-based schema linking module. EMSL has become standard in text-to-SQL: many state-of-the-art models employ EMSL, with performance dropping significantly when the EMSL component is removed. In this work, however, we show that EMSL reduces robustness, rendering models vulnerable to synonym substitution and typos. Instead of relying on EMSL to make up for deficiencies in question-schema encoding, we show that using a pre-trained language model as an encoder can improve performance without using EMSL, giving a more robust model. We also study the design choice of the schema linking module, finding that a suitable design benefits performance and interoperability. Finally, based on the above study of schema linking, we introduce the grammar linking to help model align grammar references in the question with the SQL keywords.

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Re-appraising the Schema Linking for Text-to-SQL

Large language models (LLMs) have led to a series of breakthroughs in natural language processing (NLP), partly owing to the massive amounts of world knowledge they memorize during pretraining.While many downstream applications provide the model with an informational context to aid its underlying task, how the model's world knowledge interacts with the factual information presented in the context remains under explored. As a desirable behavior, an LLM should give precedence to the context whenever it contains task-relevant information that conflicts with the model's memorized knowledge. This enables model predictions to be grounded in the context, which then facilitates updating specific model predictions without frequently retraining the model. By contrast, when the context is irrelevant to the task, the model should ignore it and fall back on its internal knowledge. In this paper, we undertake a first joint study of the aforementioned two properties, namely controllability and robustness, in the context of LLMs. We demonstrate that state-of-the-art T5 and PaLM models (both pretrained and finetuned) could exhibit low controllability and robustness that does not improve with increasing the model size. As a solution, we propose a simple yet effective method knowledge aware finetuning (KAFT) to strengthen both controllability and robustness by injecting counterfactual and irrelevant contexts to standard supervised datasets. Our comprehensive evaluation showcases the utility of KAFT across model architectures and sizes.

Large Language Models with Controllable Working Memory

Multilingual image captioning has recently been tackled by training with large-scale machine translated data, which is an expensive, noisy, and time-consuming process. Without requiring any multilingual caption data, we propose LMCap, an image-blind few-shot multilingual captioning model that works by prompting a language model with retrieved captions. Specifically, instead of following the standard encoder-decoder paradigm, given an image, LMCap first retrieves the captions of similar images using a multilingual CLIP encoder. These captions are then combined into a prompt for an XGLM decoder, in order to generate captions in the desired language. In other words, the generation model does not directly process the image, instead it processes retrieved captions. Experiments on the XM3600 dataset of geographically diverse images show that our model is competitive with fully-supervised multilingual captioning models, without requiring any supervised training on any captioning data.

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LMCap: Few-shot Multilingual Image Captioning by Retrieval Augmented Language Model Prompting

Intermediate training of pre-trained transformer-based language models on domain-specific data leads to substantial gains for downstream tasks. To increase efficiency and prevent catastrophic forgetting alleviated from full domain-adaptive pre-training, approaches such as adapters have been developed. However, these require additional parameters for each layer, and are criticized for their limited expressiveness. In this work, we introduce TADA, a novel task-agnostic domain adaptation method which is modular, parameter-efficient, and thus, data-efficient. Within TADA, we retrain the embeddings to learn domain-aware input representations and tokenizers for the transformer encoder, while freezing all other parameters of the model. Then, task-specific fine-tuning is performed. We further conduct experiments with meta-embeddings and newly introduced meta-tokenizers, resulting in one model per task in multi-domain use cases. Our broad evaluation in 4 downstream tasks for 14 domains across single- and multi-domain setups and high- and low-resource scenarios reveals that TADA is an effective and efficient alternative to full domain-adaptive pre-training and adapters for domain adaptation, while not introducing additional parameters or complex training steps.

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Scaling Laws for BERT in Low-Resource Settings

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