Canada

The machine reading comprehension (MRC) of user manuals has huge potential in customer service. However, current methods have trouble answering complex questions. Therefore, we introduce the knowing-how &amp; knowing-that task that requires the model to answer factoid-style, procedure-style, and inconsistent questions about user manuals. We resolve this task by jointly representing the sTeps and fActs in a gRAh (TARA), which supports a unified inference of various questions. Towards a systematical benchmarking study, we design a heuristic method to automatically parse user manuals into TARAs and build an annotated dataset to test the model&#39;s ability in answering real-world questions. Empirical results demonstrate that representing user manuals as TARAs is a desired solution for the MRC of user manuals. An in-depth investigation of TARA further sheds light on the issues and broader impacts of future representations of user manuals. We hope our work can move the MRC of user manuals to a more complex and realistic stage.

ACL 2023

Knowing-how &amp; Knowing-that: A New Task for Machine Comprehension of User Manuals

usermanuals

benchmark

The machine reading comprehension (MRC) of user manuals has huge potential in customer service. However, current methods have trouble answering complex questions. Therefore, we introduce the knowing-how & knowing-that task that requires the model to answer factoid-style, procedure-style, and inconsistent questions about user manuals. We resolve this task by jointly representing the sTeps and fActs in a gRAh (TARA), which supports a unified inference of various questions. Towards a systematical benchmarking study, we design a heuristic method to automatically parse user manuals into TARAs and build an annotated dataset to test the model's ability in answering real-world questions. Empirical results demonstrate that representing user manuals as TARAs is a desired solution for the MRC of user manuals. An in-depth investigation of TARA further sheds light on the issues and broader impacts of future representations of user manuals. We hope our work can move the MRC of user manuals to a more complex and realistic stage.

Knowing-how & Knowing-that: A New Task for Machine Comprehension of User Manuals

poster

### Welcome to ACL 2023, the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics! 
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In the wake of responsible AI, interpretability methods, which attempt to provide an explanation for the predictions of neural models have seen rapid progress. In this work, we are concerned with explanations that are applicable to natural language processing (NLP) models and tasks, and we focus specifically on the analysis of counterfactual, contrastive explanations. We note that while there have been several explainers proposed to produce counterfactual explanations, their behaviour can vary significantly and the lack of a universal ground truth for the counterfactual edits imposes an insuperable barrier on their evaluation. We propose a new back translation-inspired evaluation methodology that utilises earlier outputs of the explainer as ground truth proxies to investigate the consistency of explainers. We show that by iteratively feeding the counterfactual to the explainer we can obtain valuable insights into the behaviour of both the predictor and the explainer models, and infer patterns that would be otherwise obscured. Using this methodology, we conduct a thorough analysis and propose a novel metric to evaluate the consistency of counterfactual generation approaches with different characteristics across available performance indicators.

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Counterfactuals of Counterfactuals: a back-translation-inspired approach to analyse counterfactual editors

Languages are dynamic entities, where the meanings associated with words constantly change with time.Detecting the semantic variation of words is an important task for various NLP applications that must make time-sensitive predictions.Existing work on semantic variation prediction have predominantly focused on comparing some form of an averaged contextualised representation of a target word computed from a given corpus.However, some of the previously associated meanings of a target word can become obsolete over time (e.g. meaning of gay as happy), while novel usages of existing words are observed (e.g. meaning of cell as a mobile phone).We argue that mean representations alone cannot accurately capture such semantic variations and propose a method that uses the entire cohort of the contextualised embeddings of the target word, which we refer to as the sibling distribution.Experimental results on SemEval-2020 Task 1 benchmark dataset for semantic variation prediction show that our method outperforms prior work that consider only the mean embeddings, and is comparable to the current state-of-the-art. Moreover, a qualitative analysis shows that our method detects important semantic changes in words that are not captured by the existing methods.

Unsupervised Semantic Variation Prediction using the Distribution of Sibling Embeddings

Learning quality document embeddings is a fundamental problem in natural language processing (NLP), information retrieval (IR), recommendation systems, and search engines. Despite recent advances in the development of transformer-based models that produce sentence embeddings with self-contrastive learning, the encoding of long documents (Ks of words) is still challenging with respect to both efficiency and quality considerations. Therefore, we train Longfomer-based document encoders using a state-of-the-art unsupervised contrastive learning method (SimCSE). Further on, we complement the baseline method -siamese neural network- with additional convex neural networks based on functional Bregman divergence aiming to enhance the quality of the output document representations. We show that overall the combination of a self-contrastive siamese network and our proposed neural Bregman network outperforms the baselines in two linear classification settings on three long document topic classification tasks from the legal and biomedical domains.

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Efficient Document Embeddings via Self-Contrastive Bregman Divergence Learning

Sense embedding learning methods learn multiple vectors for a given ambiguous word, corresponding to its different word senses.For this purpose, different methods have been proposed in prior work on sense embedding learning that use different sense inventories, sense-tagged corpora and learning methods.However, not all existing sense embeddings cover all senses of ambiguous words equally well due to the discrepancies in their training resources.To address this problem, we propose the first-ever meta-sense embedding method -- Neighbour Preserving Meta-Sense Embeddings, which learns meta-sense embeddings by combining multiple independently trained source sense embeddings such that the sense neighbourhoods computed from the source embeddings are preserved in the meta-embedding space.Our proposed method can combine source sense embeddings that cover different sets of word senses.Experimental results on Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) and Word-in-Context (WiC) tasks show that the proposed meta-sense embedding method consistently outperforms several competitive baselines.\footnote{An anonymised version of the source code implementation for our proposed method is submitted to reviewing system. Both source code and the learnt meta-sense embeddings will be publicly released upon paper acceptance.

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Together We Make Sense--Learning Meta-Sense Embeddings

Dynamic topic models (DTMs) analyze text streams to capture the evolution of topics. Despite their popularity, existing DTMs are either fully supervised, requiring expensive human annotations, or fully unsupervised, producing topic evolutions that often do not cater to a user's needs. Further, the topic evolutions produced by DTMs tend to contain generic terms that are not indicative of their designated time steps. To address these issues, we propose the task of discriminative dynamic topic discovery. This task aims to discover topic evolutions from temporal corpora that distinctly align with a set of user-provided category names and uniquely capture topics at each time step. We solve this task by developing DynaMiTE, a framework that ensembles semantic similarity, category indicative, and time indicative scores to produce informative topic evolutions. Through experiments on three diverse datasets, including the use of a newly-designed human evaluation experiment, we demonstrate that DynaMiTE is a practical and efficient framework for helping users discover high-quality topic evolutions suited to their interests.

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DynaMiTE: Discovering Explosive Topic Evolutions with User Guidance

Multilingual pre-trained language models can learn task-specific abilities or memorize facts across multiple languages but inevitably make undesired predictions with specific inputs. Under similar observation, model editing aims to post-hoc calibrate a model targeted to specific inputs with keeping the model's raw behavior. However, existing work only studies the monolingual scenario, which lacks the cross-lingual transferability to perform editing simultaneously across languages. In this work, we focus on cross-lingual model editing. Firstly, we define the cross-lingual model editing task and corresponding metrics, where an edit in one language propagates to the others. Next, we propose a framework to naturally adapt monolingual model editing approaches to the cross-lingual scenario using parallel corpus. Further, we propose language anisotropic editing to improve cross-lingual editing by amplifying different subsets of parameters for each language. On the newly defined cross-lingual model editing task, we empirically demonstrate the failure of monolingual baselines in propagating the edit to multiple languages and the effectiveness of the proposed language anisotropic model editing. Our code is publicly available at https://github.com/franklear/LiME.

Language Anisotropic Cross-Lingual Model Editing

Automated essay scoring (AES) aims to score essays written for a given prompt, which defines the writing topic. Most existing AES systems assume to grade essays of the same prompt as used in training and assign only a holistic score. However, such settings conflict with real-education situations; pre-graded essays for a particular prompt are lacking, and detailed trait scores of sub-rubrics are required. Thus, predicting various trait scores of unseen-prompt essays (called cross-prompt essay trait scoring) is a remaining challenge of AES. In this paper, we propose a robust model: prompt- and trait relation-aware cross-prompt essay trait scorer. We encode prompt-aware essay representation by essay-prompt attention and utilizing the topic-coherence feature extracted by the topic-modeling mechanism without access to labeled data; therefore, our model considers the prompt adherence of an essay, even in a cross-prompt setting. To facilitate multi-trait scoring, we design trait-similarity loss that encapsulates the correlations of traits. Experiments prove the efficacy of our model, showing state-of-the-art results for all prompts and traits. Significant improvements in low-resource-prompt and inferior traits further indicate our model's strength.

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Prompt- and Trait Relation-aware Cross-prompt Essay Trait Scoring

Debiasing methods that seek to mitigate the tendency of Language Models (LMs) to occasionally output toxic or inappropriate text have recently gained traction. In this paper, we propose a standardized protocol which distinguishes methods that yield not only desirable results, but are also consistent with their mechanisms and specifications. For example, we ask, given a debiasing method that is developed to reduce toxicity in LMs, if the definition of toxicity used by the debiasing method is reversed, would the debiasing results also be reversed? We used such considerations to devise three criteria for our new protocol: Specification Polarity, Specification Importance, and Domain Transferability. As a case study, we apply our protocol to a popular debiasing method, Self-Debiasing, and compare it to one we propose, called Instructive Debiasing, and demonstrate that consistency is as important an aspect to debiasing viability as is simply a desirable result. We show that our protocol provides essential insights into the generalizability and interpretability of debiasing methods that may otherwise go overlooked.

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Debiasing should be Good and Bad: Measuring the Consistency of Debiasing Techniques in Language Models

In task-oriented dialogue (TOD) systems designed to aid users accomplish specific goals in one or more domains, the agent retrieves entities that satisfy user constraints from the database. However, when multiple database search results exist, an ambiguity occurs regarding which results to select and present to the user. Existing TOD systems handle this ambiguity by randomly selecting one or few results and presenting their names to the user. However, in a real scenario, users do not always accept a randomly recommended entity, and users should have access to more comprehensive information about the search results. To address this limitation, we propose a novel task called Comparison-Based database search Ambiguity handling (CBA), which handles ambiguity in database search results by comparing the properties of multiple entities to enable users to choose according to their preferences. Accordingly, we introduce a new framework for automatically collecting high-quality dialogue data along with the Disambiguating Schema-guided Dialogue (DSD) dataset, an augmented version of the SGD dataset. Experimental studies on the DSD dataset demonstrate that training baseline models with the dataset effectively address the CBA task. Our dataset and code will be publicized.

Injecting Comparison Skills in Task-Oriented Dialogue Systems for Database Search Results Disambiguation

Document retrieval is a key stage of standard Web search engines. Existing dual-encoder dense retrievers obtain representations for questions and documents independently, allowing for only shallow interactions between them. To overcome this limitation, recent autoregressive search engines replace the dual-encoder architecture by directly generating identifiers for relevant documents in the candidate pool.However, the training cost of such autoregressive search engines rises sharply as the number of candidate documents increases.In this paper, we find that large language models (LLMs) can follow human instructions to directly generate URLs for document retrieval.Surprisingly, when providing a few {Query-URL} pairs as in-context demonstrations, LLMs can generate Web URLs where nearly 90\% of the corresponding documents contain correct answers to open-domain questions.In this way, LLMs can be thought of as built-in search engines, since they have not been explicitly trained to map questions to document identifiers.Experiments demonstrate that our method can consistently achieve better retrieval performance than existing retrieval approaches by a significant margin on three open-domain question answering benchmarks, under both zero and few-shot settings.The code for this work can be found at \url{https://github.com/Ziems/llm-url}.

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