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In this work, we explore a useful but often neglected methodology for robustness analysis of text generation evaluation metrics: stress tests with synthetic data. Basically, we design and synthesize a wide range of potential errors and check whether they result in a commensurate drop in the metric scores. We examine a range of recently proposed evaluation metrics based on pretrained language models, for the tasks of open-ended generation, translation, and summarization. Our experiments reveal interesting insensitivities, biases, or even loopholes in existing metrics. For example, we find that BERTScore is confused by truncation errors in summarization, and MAUVE (built on top of GPT-2) is insensitive to errors at the beginning or middle of generations. Further, we investigate the reasons behind these blind spots and suggest practical workarounds for a more reliable evaluation of text generation. We have released our code and data at https://github.com/cloudygoose/blindspot_nlg.

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ACL 2023

On the Blind Spots of Model-Based Evaluation Metrics for Text Generation

stress test

evaluation metric

text generation

robustness

### Welcome to ACL 2023, the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics! 
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Read [**ACL 2023 General Chair's message**](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1WobYM7norbG4dI48s75HfJoD89qgX5a_F-6U8AteLSA/edit?usp=sharing/) in full.

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The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is the premier international scientific and professional society for people working on computational problems involving human language, a field often referred to as either computational linguistics or natural language processing.

In this work, we explore a useful but often neglected methodology for robustness analysis of text generation evaluation metrics: stress tests with synthetic data. Basically, we design and synthesize a wide range of potential errors and check whether they result in a commensurate drop in the metric scores. We examine a range of recently proposed evaluation metrics based on pretrained language models, for the tasks of open-ended generation, translation, and summarization. Our experiments reveal interesting insensitivities, biases, or even loopholes in existing metrics. For example, we find that BERTScore is confused by truncation errors in summarization, and MAUVE (built on top of GPT-2) is insensitive to errors at the beginning or middle of generations. Further, we investigate the reasons behind these blind spots and suggest practical workarounds for a more reliable evaluation of text generation. We have released our code and data at https://github.com/cloudygoose/blindspot_nlg.

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technical paper

Dense retrieval has shown promise in the first-stage retrieval process when trained on in-domain labeled datasets. However, previous studies have found that dense retrieval is hard to generalize to unseen domains due to its weak modeling of domain-invariant and interpretable feature (i.e., matching signal between two texts, which is the essence of information retrieval). In this paper, we propose a novel method to improve the generalization of dense retrieval via capturing matching signal called BERM. Fully fine-grained expression and query-oriented saliency are two properties of the matching signal. Thus, in BERM, a single passage is segmented into multiple units and two unit-level requirements are proposed for representation as the constraint in training to obtain the effective matching signal. One is semantic unit balance and the other is essential matching unit extractability. Unit-level view and balanced semantics make representation express the text in a fine-grained manner. Essential matching unit extractability makes passage representation sensitive to the given query to extract the pure matching information from the passage containing complex context. Experiments on BEIR show that our method can be effectively combined with different dense retrieval training methods (vanilla, hard negatives mining and knowledge distillation) to improve its generalization ability without any additional inference overhead and target domain data.

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BERM: Training the Balanced and Extractable Representation for Matching to Improve Generalization Ability of Dense Retrieval

Answering non-factoid questions (NFQA) is a challenging task, requiring passage-level answers that are difficult to construct and evaluate. Search engines may provide a summary of a single web page, but many questions require reasoning across multiple documents. Meanwhile, modern models can generate highly coherent and fluent, but often factually incorrect answers that can deceive even non-expert humans. There is a critical need for high-quality resources for multi-document NFQA (MD-NFQA) to train new models and evaluate answers' grounding and factual consistency in relation to supporting documents.To address this gap, we introduce WikiHowQA, a new multi-document NFQA benchmark built on WikiHow, a website dedicated to answering ``how-to'' questions. The benchmark includes 11,746 human-written answers along with 74,527 supporting documents. We describe the unique challenges of the resource, provide strong baselines, and propose a novel human evaluation framework that utilizes highlighted relevant supporting passages to mitigate issues such as assessor unfamiliarity with the question topic. All code and data, including the automatic code for preparing the human evaluation, are publicly available.

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WikiHowQA: A Comprehensive Benchmark for Multi-Document Non-Factoid Question Answering

The performance of automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems has advanced substantially in recent years, particularly for languages for which a large amount of transcribed speech is available. Unfortunately, for low-resource languages, such as minority languages, regional languages or dialects, ASR performance generally remains much lower. In this study, we investigate whether data augmentation techniques could help improve low-resource ASR performance, focusing on four typologically diverse minority languages or language variants (West Germanic: Gronings, West-Frisian; Malayo-Polynesian: Besemah, Nasal). For all four languages, we examine the use of self-training, where an ASR system trained with the available human-transcribed data is used to generate transcriptions, which are then combined with the original data to train a new ASR system. For Gronings, for which there was a pre-existing text-to-speech (TTS) system available, we also examined the use of TTS to generate ASR training data from text-only sources. We find that using a self-training approach consistently yields improved performance (a relative WER reduction up to 20.5% compared to using an ASR system trained on 24 minutes of manually transcribed speech). The performance gain from TTS augmentation for Gronings was even stronger (up to 25.5% relative reduction in WER compared to a system based on 24 minutes of manually transcribed speech). In sum, our results show the benefit of using self-training or (if possible) TTS-generated data as an efficient solution to overcome the limitations of data availability for resource-scarce languages in order to improve ASR performance.

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Making More of Little Data: Improving Low-Resource Automatic Speech Recognition Using Data Augmentation

Few-shot continual relation extraction aims to continually train a model on incrementally few-shot data to learn new relations while avoiding forgetting old ones. However, current memory-based methods are prone to overfitting memory samples, resulting in insufficient activation of old relations and limited ability to handle the confusion of similar classes. In this paper, we design a new N-way-K-shot Continual Relation Extraction (NK-CRE) task and propose a novel few-shot continual relation extraction method with Consistent Prototype Learning (ConPL) to address the aforementioned issues. Our proposed ConPL is mainly composed of three modules: 1) a prototype-based classification module that provides primary relation predictions under few-shot continual learning; 2) a memory-enhanced module designed to select vital samples and refined prototypical representations as a novel multi-information episodic memory; 3) a consistent learning module to reduce catastrophic forgetting by enforcing distribution consistency. To effectively mitigate catastrophic forgetting, ConPL ensures that the samples and prototypes in the episodic memory remain consistent in terms of classification and distribution. Additionally, ConPL used prompt learning to extract better representations and adopts a focal loss to alleviate the confusion of similar classes. Experimental results on two commonly-used datasets show that our model consistently outperforms other competitive baselines.

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Consistent Prototype Learning for Few-Shot Continual Relation Extraction

This paper confirms that, in English binary coordinations, left conjuncts tend to be shorter than right conjuncts, regardless of the position of the governor of the coordination. We demonstrate that this tendency becomes stronger when length differences are greater, but only when the governor is on the left or absent, not when it is on the right. We explain this effect via Dependency Length Minimization and we show that this explanation provides support for symmetrical dependency structures of coordination (where coordination is multi-headed by all conjuncts, as in Word Grammar or in enhanced Universal Dependencies, or where it single-headed by the conjunction, as in the Prague Dependency Treebank), as opposed to asymmetrical structures (where coordination is headed by the first conjunct, as in the MeaningText Theory or in basic Universal Dependencies).

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Conjunct Lengths in English, Dependency Length Minimization, and Dependency Structure of Coordination

Recent studies have proposed unified user modeling frameworks that leverage user behavior data from various applications. Many of them benefit from utilizing users' behavior sequences as plain texts, representing rich information in any domain or system without losing generality. Hence, a question arises: Can language modeling for user history corpus help improve recommender systems? While its versatile usability has been widely investigated in many domains, its applications to recommender systems still remain underexplored. We show that language modeling applied directly to task-specific user histories achieves excellent results on diverse recommendation tasks. Also, leveraging additional task-agnostic user histories delivers significant performance benefits. We further demonstrate that our approach can provide promising transfer learning capabilities for a broad spectrum of real-world recommender systems, even on unseen domains and services.

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Pivotal Role of Language Modeling in Recommender Systems: Enriching Task-specific and Task-agnostic Representation Learning

Existing methods for event causality identification (ECI) focus on mining potential causal signals, i.e., causal context keywords and event pairs. However, causal signals are ambiguous, which may lead to the context-keywords bias and the event-pairs bias.To solve this issue, we propose the \textit{counterfactual reasoning} that explicitly estimates the influence of context keywords and event pairs in training, so that we are able to eliminate the biases in inference.Experiments are conducted on two datasets, the result demonstrates the effectiveness of our method.

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Enhancing Event Causality Identification with Counterfactual Reasoning

Recent studies have revealed some issues of Multi-Head Attention (MHA), e.g., redundancy and over-parameterization. Specifically, the heads of MHA were originally designed to attend to information from different representation subspaces, whereas prior studies found that some attention heads likely learn similar features and can be pruned without harming performance. Inspired by the minimum-redundancy feature selection, we assume that focusing on the most representative and distinctive features with minimum resources can mitigate the above issues and lead to more effective and efficient MHAs. In particular, we propose Grouped Head Attention, trained with a self-supervised group constraint that group attention heads, where each group focuses on an essential but distinctive feature subset. We additionally propose a Voting-to-Stay procedure to remove redundant heads, thus achieving a transformer with lighter weights. Extensive experiments are consistent with our hypothesis. Moreover, our method achieves significant performance gains on three well-established tasks while considerably compressing parameters.

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Finding the Pillars of Strength for Multi-Head Attention

Multi-task learning (MTL) has emerged as a promising approach for sharing inductive bias across multiple tasks to enable more efficient learning in text classification. However, training all tasks simultaneously often yields degraded performance of each task than learning them independently, since different tasks might conflict with each other.Existing MTL methods for alleviating this issue is to leverage heuristics or gradient-based algorithm to achieve an arbitrary Pareto optimal trade-off among different tasks. In this paper, we present a novel gradient trade-off approach to mitigate the task conflict problem, dubbed GetMTL, which can achieve a specific trade-off among different tasks nearby the main objective of multi-task text classification (MTC), so as to improve the performance of each task simultaneously.The results of extensive experiments on two benchmark datasets back up our theoretical analysis and validate the superiority of our proposed GetMTL.

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Improving Gradient Trade-offs between Tasks in Multi-task Text Classification

Human-annotated data plays a critical role in the fairness of AI systems, including those that deal with life-altering decisions or moderating human-created web/social media content. Conventionally, annotator disagreements are resolved before any learning takes place. However, researchers are increasingly identifying annotator disagreement as pervasive and meaningful. They also question the performance of a system when annotators disagree. Particularly when minority views are disregarded, especially among groups that may already be underrepresented in the annotator population. In this paper, we introduce CrowdOpinion, an unsupervised learning based approach that uses language features and label distributions to pool similar items into larger samples of label distributions. We experiment with four generative and one density-based clustering method, applied to five linear combinations of label distributions and features. We use five publicly available benchmark datasets (with varying levels of annotator disagreements) from social media (Twitter, Gab, and Reddit). We also experiment in the wild using a dataset from Facebook, where annotations come from the platform itself by users reacting to posts. We evaluate CrowdOpinion as a label distribution prediction task using KL-divergence and a single-label problem using accuracy measures.

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BERM: Training the Balanced and Extractable Representation for Matching to Improve Generalization Ability of Dense Retrieval

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