Ireland

Figurative language is ubiquitous in English. Yet, the vast majority of NLP research focuses on literal language. Existing text representations by design rely on
compositionality, while figurative language is often non-compositional. In this paper, we study the interpretation of two noncompositional figurative languages (idioms
and similes). We collected datasets of fictional narratives containing a figurative expression along with crowd-sourced plausible and implausible continuations relying on the correct interpretation of the expression. We then trained models to choose or generate the plausible continuation. Our experiments show that models based solely on pretrained language models perform substantially worse than humans on these tasks. We additionally propose knowledge-enhanced
models, adopting human strategies for interpreting figurative language types : inferring meaning from the context and relying on the constituent words’ literal meanings. The knowledge-enhanced models improve the performance on both the discriminative and generative tasks, further bridging the gap from human performance.

ACL 2022

Interpreting Figurative Language in Narratives

simile

idiom

figurative language

# Welcome everyone to ACL 2022!

The 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics is taking place May 22-27, 2022 as a hybrid event, in Dublin and online. We are happy to welcome all of you to this anniversary edition with an almost 50-50 in-person and virtual participation. 
The main conference program features oral presentations, in-person and virtual posters and demo sessions, a plenary session for our best paper presentations and awards, three amazing keynote events and two new initiatives of invited talks: Spotlight Talks for Young Rising Stars (STIRS) and The Next Big Idea Talks. Posters (including Findings of ACL 2022) and demos are grouped by areas for both the in-person and the virtual sessions. For the virtual component, the talks will be on Zoom and the posters and the demos will be in GatherTown. The Student Research Workshop will have an oral session and a poster session as part of Poster Session 1. The program also features eight Tutorials and 28 Workshops. 

 
We wish you a wonderful conference! 
[**The ACL 2022 Organizing Committee**](https://www.2022.aclweb.org/organisers)
 
[**Conference Handbook**](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1_BUCMfhMVrjG9E2e71aHdHeE28KSje0l/view?usp=sharing) 
[**Mini Handbook**](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qlBKl0wzmlVF1oCeMQl3BahLd9nLP5Ce/view?usp=sharing) 
[**Posters and Demo guides**](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UucMAoCNncIOaH1rMMDa0owuG9qgvJTG/view?usp=sharing)

The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is the premier international scientific and professional society for people working on computational problems involving human language, a field often referred to as either computational linguistics or natural language processing (NLP). 

findings / work in progress

Recent efforts to create challenge benchmarks that test the abilities of natural language understanding models have largely depended on human annotations. In this work, we introduce the "Break, Perturb, Build" (BPB) framework for automatic reasoning-oriented perturbation of question-answer pairs. BPB represents a question by decomposing it into the reasoning steps that are required to answer it, symbolically perturbs the decomposition, and then generates new question-answer pairs. We demonstrate the effectiveness of BPB by creating evaluation sets for three reading comprehension (RC) benchmarks, generating thousands of high-quality examples without human intervention. We evaluate a range of RC models on our evaluation sets, which reveals large performance gaps on generated examples compared to the original data. Moreover, symbolic perturbations enable fine-grained analysis of the strengths and limitations of models. Last, augmenting the training data with examples generated by BPB helps close the performance gaps, without any drop on the original data distribution.

Break, Perturb, Build: Automatic Perturbation of Reasoning Paths Through Question Decomposition

As a recent development in few-shot learning, prompt-based techniques have demonstrated promising potential in a variety of natural language processing tasks. However, despite proving competitive on most tasks in the GLUE and SuperGLUE benchmarks, existing prompt-based techniques fail on the semantic distinction task of the Word-in-Context (WiC) dataset. Specifically, none of the existing few-shot approaches (including the in-context learning of GPT-3) can attain a performance that is meaningfully different from the random baseline.
Trying to fill this gap, we propose a new prompting technique, based on similarity metrics, which boosts few-shot performance to the level of fully supervised methods. Our simple adaptation shows that the failure of existing prompt-based techniques in semantic distinction is due to their improper configuration, rather than lack of relevant knowledge in the representations. We also show that this approach can be effectively extended to other downstream tasks for which a single prompt is sufficient.

Exploiting Language Model Prompts Using Similarity Measures: A Case Study on the Word-in-Context Task

The principal task in supervised neural machine translation (NMT) is to learn to generate target sentences conditioned on the source inputs from a set of parallel sentence pairs, and thus produce a model capable of generalizing to unseen instances. However, it is commonly observed that the generalization performance of the model is highly influenced by the amount of parallel data used in training. Although data augmentation is widely used to enrich the training data, conventional methods with discrete manipulations fail to generate diverse and faithful training samples. In this paper, we present a novel data augmentation paradigm termed Continuous Semantic Augmentation (CSANMT), which augments each training instance with an adjacency semantic region that could cover adequate variants of literal expression under the same meaning. We conduct extensive experiments on both rich-resource and low-resource settings involving various language pairs, including WMT14 English-to-{German,French}, NIST Chinese-to-English and multiple low-resource IWSLT translation tasks. The provided empirical evidences show that CSANMT sets a new level of performance among existing augmentation techniques, improving on the state-of-the-art by a large margin.

Learning to Generalize to More: Continuous Semantic Augmentation for Neural Machine Translation

The retriever-reader framework is popular for open-domain question answering (ODQA) due to its ability to use explicit knowledge. Although prior work has sought to increase the knowledge coverage by incorporating structured knowledge beyond text, accessing heterogeneous knowledge sources through a unified interface remains an open question. While data-to-text generation has the potential to
serve as a universal interface for data and text, its feasibility for downstream tasks remains largely unknown. In this work, we bridge this gap and use the data-to-text method as a means for encoding structured knowledge for ODQA. Specifically, we propose a verbalizer-retriever-reader framework for ODQA over data and text where verbalized tables from Wikipedia and graphs from Wikidata are used as augmented knowledge sources. We show that our Unified Data and Text QA, UDT-QA, can effectively benefit from the expanded knowledge index, leading to large gains over text-only baselines. Notably, our approach sets the single-model state-of-the-art on Natural Questions. Furthermore, our analyses indicate that verbalized knowledge is preferred for answer reasoning for both adapted and hot-swap settings.

Open Domain Question Answering with A Unified Knowledge Interface

End-to-end speech translation relies on data that pair source-language speech inputs with corresponding translations into a target language. Such data are notoriously scarce, making synthetic data augmentation by back-translation or knowledge distillation a necessary ingredient of end-to-end training. In this paper, we present a novel approach to data augmentation that leverages audio alignments, linguistic properties, and translation. First, we augment a transcription by sampling from a suffix memory that stores text and audio data. Second, we translate the augmented transcript. Finally, we recombine concatenated audio segments and the generated translation. Besides training an MT-system, we only use basic off-the-shelf components without fine-tuning. While having similar resource demands as knowledge distillation, adding our method delivers consistent improvements of up to 0.9 and 1.1 BLEU points on five language pairs on CoVoST 2 and on two language pairs on Europarl-ST, respectively.

Sample, Translate, Recombine: Leveraging Audio Alignments for Data Augmentation in End-to-end Speech Translation

A key challenge in attribute value extraction (AVE) from e-commerce sites is how to handle a large number of attributes for diverse products. Although this challenge is partially addressed by a question answering (QA) approach which finds a value in product data for a given query (attribute), it does not work effectively for rare and ambiguous queries. We thus propose simple knowledge-driven query expansion
based on possible answers (values) of a query (attribute) for QA-based AVE. We retrieve values of a query (attribute) from the training data to expand the query. We train a model with two tricks, knowledge dropout and knowledge token mixing, which mimic the imperfection of the value knowledge in testing. Experimental results on our cleaned version of AliExpress dataset show that our method improves the performance of AVE (+6.08 macro F1), especially for rare and ambiguous attributes (+7.82 and +6.86 macro F1, respectively).

Simple and Effective Knowledge-Driven Query Expansion for QA-Based Product Attribute Extraction

One of the biggest challenges hindering progress in low-resource and multilingual
machine translation is the lack of good evaluation benchmarks. Current evaluation benchmarks either lack good coverage of lowresource languages, consider only restricted domains, or are low quality because they are constructed using semi-automatic procedures. In this work, we introduce the FLORES-101 evaluation benchmark, consisting of 3001 sentences extracted from English Wikipedia and covering a variety of different topics and domains. These sentences have been translated in 101 languages by professional translators through a carefully controlled process. The resulting dataset enables better assessment of model quality on the long tail of low-resource languages, including the evaluation of many-to-many multilingual translation systems, as all translations are fully aligned. By publicly releasing such a high-quality and high-coverage dataset, we hope to foster progress in the machine translation community and beyond.

The FLORES-101 Evaluation Benchmark for Low-Resource and Multilingual Machine Translation

Pre-trained models have shown very good performances on a number of question answering benchmarks especially when fine-tuned on multiple question answering datasets at once. In this work, we propose an approach for generating a fine-tuning dataset thanks to a rule-based algorithm that generates questions and answers from unannotated sentences. We show that the state-of-the-art model UnifiedQA can greatly benefit from such a system on a multiple-choice benchmark about physics, biology and chemistry it has never been trained on. We further show that improved performances may be obtained by selecting the most challenging distractors (wrong answers), with a dedicated ranker based on a pretrained RoBERTa model.

Unsupervised multiple-choice question generation for out-of-domain Q&A fine-tuning

The increasing size of generative Pre-trained Language
Models (PLMs) have greatly increased the demand for model compression.
Despite various methods to compress BERT or its variants, 
there are few attempts to compress generative PLMs, and the underlying difficulty remains unclear. In this paper, we compress generative PLMs by quantization.
We find that previous quantization methods fail on generative tasks due to the homogeneous word embeddings caused by reduced capacity, and varied distribution of weights. Correspondingly, we propose a token-level contrastive distillation to learn distinguishable word embeddings, and a module-wise dynamic scaling to make quantizers adaptive to different modules. Empirical results on various tasks show that our proposed method outperforms the state-of-the-art compression
methods on generative PLMs by a clear margin. With comparable performance with the full-precision models, we achieve 14.4x and 13.4x compression rates on GPT-2 and BART, respectively.

Compression of Generative Pre-trained Language Models via Quantization

There are limitations in learning language from text alone. Therefore, recent focus has been on developing multimodal models. However, few benchmarks exist that can measure what language models learn about language from multimodal training. We hypothesize that training on a visual modality should improve on the visual commonsense knowledge in language models. Therefore, we introduce two evaluation tasks for measuring visual commonsense knowledge in language models and use them to evaluate different multimodal models and unimodal baselines. Primarily, we find that the visual commonsense knowledge is not significantly different between the multimodal models and unimodal baseline models trained on visual text data.

Interpreting Figurative Language in Narratives

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Break, Perturb, Build: Automatic Perturbation of Reasoning Paths Through Question Decomposition

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