Dominican Republic

The principle of independent causal mechanisms (ICM) states that generative processes of real world data consist of independent modules which do not influence or inform each other. While this idea has led to fruitful developments in the field of causal inference, it is not widely-known in the NLP community. In this work, we argue that the causal direction of the data collection process bears nontrivial implications that can explain a number of published NLP findings, such as differences in semi-supervised learning (SSL) and domain adaptation (DA) performance across different settings. We categorize common NLP tasks according to their causal direction and empirically assay the validity of the ICM principle for text data using minimum description length. We conduct an extensive meta-analysis of over 100 published SSL and 30 DA studies, and find that the results are consistent with our expectations based on causal insights. This work presents the first attempt to analyze the ICM principle in NLP, and provides constructive suggestions for future modeling choices.

EMNLP 2021

Causal Direction of Data Collection Matters: Implications of Causal and Anticausal Learning for NLP

EMNLP 2021 is planned to be a hybrid event in Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, with both on-site and fully virtual participation possible. The experience for on-site participants would closely approximate a normal pre-COVID *ACL conference, with 5-6 thematically organized parallel sessions and live Q/A and interactive discussion immediately after the talks. Presentations by virtual participants will be equitably interleaved with those of on-site participants, projected on the auditorium screens as if on-site, and also followed immediately by live Q/A and interactive discussion at a time during reasonable waking hours for the virtual presenter. For all participants, on-site and virtual, who are unable to attend a session due to either time-zone issues or because they are participating in another session live, talk recordings and slides will be available online at a minimum after the live presentation (and in many cases before as well), and questions may be submitted in advance on session-specific discussion boards and answered live in session with the usual visual aids if desired.

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EMNLP 2021 is planned to be a hybrid event in Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, with both on-site and fully virtual participation possible.

poster

As a prominent attribution-based explanation algorithm, Integrated Gradients (IG) is widely adopted due to its desirable explanation axioms and the ease of gradient computation. It measures feature importance by averaging the model’s output gradient interpolated along a straight-line path in the input data space. However, such straight-line interpolated points are not representative of text data due to the inherent discreteness of the word embedding space. This questions the faithfulness of the gradients computed at the interpolated points and consequently, the quality of the generated explanations. Here we propose Discretized Integrated Gradients (DIG), which allows effective attribution along non-linear interpolation paths. We develop two interpolation strategies for the discrete word embedding space that generates interpolation points that lie close to actual words in the embedding space, yielding more faithful gradient computation. We demonstrate the effectiveness of DIG over IG through experimental and human evaluations on multiple sentiment classification datasets. We provide the source code of DIG to encourage reproducible research.

Discretized Integrated Gradients for Explaining Language Models

Sequence models are a critical component of modern NLP systems, but their predictions are difficult to explain. We consider model explanations though rationales, subsets of context that can explain individual model predictions. We find sequential rationales by solving a combinatorial optimization: the best rationale is the smallest subset of input tokens that would predict the same output as the full sequence. Enumerating all subsets is intractable, so we propose an efficient greedy algorithm to approximate this objective. The algorithm, which is called greedy rationalization, applies to any model. For this approach to be effective, the model should form compatible conditional distributions when making predictions on incomplete subsets of the context. This condition can be enforced with a short fine- tuning step. We study greedy rationalization on language modeling and machine translation. Compared to existing baselines, greedy rationalization is best at optimizing the combinatorial objective and provides the most faithful rationales. On a new dataset of annotated sequential rationales, greedy rationales are most similar to human rationales.

Rationales for Sequential Predictions

Influence functions approximate the "influences" of training data-points for test predictions and have a wide variety of applications. Despite the popularity, their computational cost does not scale well with model and training data size. We present FastIF, a set of simple modifications to influence functions that significantly improves their run-time. We use k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) to narrow the search space down to a subset of good candidate data points, identify the configurations that best balance the speed-quality trade-off in estimating the inverse Hessian-vector product, and introduce a fast parallel variant. Our proposed method achieves about 80X speedup while being highly correlated with the original influence values. With the availability of the fast influence functions, we demonstrate their usefulness in four applications. First, we examine whether influential data-points can "explain" test time behavior using the framework of simulatability. Second, we visualize the influence interactions between training and test data-points. Third, we show that we can correct model errors by additional fine-tuning on certain influential data-points, improving the accuracy of a trained MultiNLI model by 2.5% on the HANS dataset. Finally, we experiment with a similar setup but fine-tuning on datapoints not seen during training, improving the model accuracy by 2.8% and 1.7% on HANS and ANLI datasets respectively. Overall, our fast influence functions can be efficiently applied to large models and datasets, and our experiments demonstrate the potential of influence functions in model interpretation and correcting model errors.

FastIF: Scalable Influence Functions for Efficient Model Interpretation and Debugging

Generative approaches have been recently shown to be effective for both Entity Disambiguation and Entity Linking (i.e., joint mention detection and disambiguation). However, the previously proposed autoregressive formulation for EL suffers from i) high computational cost due to a complex (deep) decoder, ii) non-parallelizable decoding that scales with the source sequence length, and iii) the need for training on a large amount of data. In this work, we propose a very efficient approach that parallelizes autoregressive linking across all potential mentions and relies on a shallow and efficient decoder. Moreover, we augment the generative objective with an extra discriminative component, i.e., a correction term which lets us directly optimize the generator's ranking. When taken together, these techniques tackle all the above issues: our model is >70 times faster and more accurate than the previous generative method, outperforming state-of-the-art approaches on the standard English dataset AIDA-CoNLL. Source code available at https://github.com/nicola-decao/efficient-autoregressive-EL

Highly Parallel Autoregressive Entity Linking with Discriminative Correction

Multi-task auxiliary learning utilizes a set of relevant auxiliary tasks to improve the performance of a primary task. A common usage is to manually select multiple auxiliary tasks for multi-task learning on all data, which raises two issues: (1) selecting beneficial auxiliary tasks for a primary task is nontrivial; (2) when the auxiliary datasets are large, training on all data becomes time-expensive and impractical. Therefore, this paper focuses on addressing these problems and proposes a time efficient sampling method to select the data that is most relevant to the primary task. The proposed method allows us to only train on the most beneficial sub-datasets from the auxiliary tasks, achieving efficient multi-task auxiliary learning. The experiments on three benchmark datasets (RTE, MRPC, STS-B) show that our method significantly outperforms random sampling and ST-DNN. Also, by applying our method, the model can surpass fully-trained MT-DNN on RTE, MRPC, STS-B, using only 50%, 66%, and 1% of data, respectively.

Efficient Multi-Task Auxiliary Learning: Selecting Auxiliary Data by Feature Similarity

Providing pretrained language models with simple task descriptions in natural language enables them to solve some tasks in a fully unsupervised fashion. Moreover, when combined with regular learning from examples, this idea yields impressive few-shot results for a wide range of text classification tasks. It is also a promising direction to improve data efficiency in generative settings, but there are several challenges to using a combination of task descriptions and example-based learning for text generation. In particular, it is crucial to find task descriptions that are easy to understand for the pretrained model and to ensure that it actually makes good use of them; furthermore, effective measures against overfitting have to be implemented. In this paper, we show how these challenges can be tackled: We introduce GenPET, a method for text generation that is based on pattern-exploiting training, a recent approach for combining textual instructions with supervised learning that only works for classification tasks. On several summarization and headline generation datasets, GenPET gives consistent improvements over strong baselines in few-shot settings.

Few-Shot Text Generation with Natural Language Instructions

Recently, some studies have shown that text classification tasks are vulnerable to poisoning and evasion attacks. However, little work has investigated attacks against decision-making algorithms that use text embeddings, and their output is a ranking. In this paper, we focus on ranking algorithms for the recruitment process that employ text embeddings for ranking applicants' resumes when compared to a job description. We demonstrate both white-box and black-box attacks that identify text items that, based on their location in embedding space, have a significant contribution in increasing the similarity score between a resume and a job description. The adversary then uses these text items to improve the ranking of their resume among others. We tested recruitment algorithms that use the similarity scores obtained from Universal Sentence Encoder (USE) and Term Frequency–Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) vectors. Our results show that in both adversarial settings, on average the attacker is successful. We also found that attacks against TF-IDF are more successful compared to USE.

Attacks against Ranking Algorithms with Text Embeddings: {A} Case Study on Recruitment Algorithms

We propose a simple yet effective Multi-Layer RAndom Perturbation Training algorithm (RAPT) to enhance model robustness and generalization. The key idea is to apply randomly sampled noise to each input to generate label-preserving artificial input points. To encourage the model to generate more diverse examples, the noise is added to a combination of the model layers. Then, our model regularizes the posterior difference between clean and noisy inputs. We apply RAPT towards robust and efficient BERT training and conduct comprehensive fine-tuning experiments on GLUEtasks. Our results show that RAPT outperforms the standard fine-tuning approach and adversarial training method, yet with 22% less training time.

Multi-Layer Random Perturbation Training for improving Model Generalization Efficiently

Current research in automatic summarisation is unapologetically anglo-centred - a persistent state-of-affairs, which also predates neural net approaches. High-quality automatic summarisation datasets are notoriously expensive to create, posing a challenge for any language. However, with digitalisation, archiving, and social media advertising of newswire articles, recent work has shown how, with careful methodology application, large-scale datasets can now be simply gathered instead of written. In this paper, we present a large-scale multi-lingual summarisation dataset containing articles in 92 languages, spread across 28.8 million articles, in more than 35 writing scripts. This is both the largest, most inclusive, exist- ing automatic summarisation dataset, as well as one of the largest, most inclusive, ever published datasets for any NLP task. We present the first investigation on the efficacy of resource building from news platforms in the low-resource language setting. Finally, we provide some first insight on how low-resource language settings impact state-of-the-art automatic summarisation system performance.

MassiveSumm: a very large-scale, very multilingual, news summarisation dataset

This paper presents a novel unsupervised abstractive summarization method for opinionated texts. While the basic variational autoencoder-based models assume a unimodal Gaussian prior for the latent code of sentences, we alternate it with a recursive Gaussian mixture, where each mixture component corresponds to the latent code of a topic sentence and is mixed by a tree-structured topic distribution. By decoding each Gaussian component, we generate sentences with tree-structured topic guidance, where the root sentence conveys generic content, and the leaf sentences describe specific topics. Experimental results demonstrate that the generated topic sentences are appropriate as a summary of opinionated texts, which are more informative and cover more input contents than those generated by the recent unsupervised summarization model (Bražinskas et al., 2020). Furthermore, we demonstrate that the variance of latent Gaussians represents the granularity of sentences, analogous to Gaussian word embedding (Vilnis and McCallum, 2015).

Causal Direction of Data Collection Matters: Implications of Causal and Anticausal Learning for NLP

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