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The study of the relationships between the natural characteristics of the environment and the quality of the wine highlights the existence of a specificity. The basic element of the viticultural vocation is the territory, which materializes in a geographical space within which the work of nature and the centuries-old intervention of man have given rise to a food that cannot be produced elsewhere, whose qualitative excellence manifests itself continuously, therefore even in the most difficult years. It is from the interaction between natural and human factors that the peculiarities of wine are born. The high number of different areas dedicated to wine production is to be considered an element of the value of Italian viticulture, together with the great wealth of national varieties. The analysis of the various factors that lead to the qualitative expression of wines has been the subject, in the last twenty years, of numerous scientific studies, which have highlighted in the first instance, i.e. on a fairly large geographical scale, the fundamental contribution that geology and the geomorphology contribute to the peculiarities of the wine-growing areas. These factors contribute to determining the characteristics and qualities of the soil, some of which have a decisive effect on the viticultural and oenological response. In particular, the characteristics that condition water and mineral nutrition, such as water retention capacity, depth and volume that can be explored by the roots, stoniness and colour (mirror of its chemical composition), superficial and deep drainage, richness in active limestone as well as in macro and microelements, they are the basis for the quality of the grapes and the subsequent qualitative expression of the wines. Wine-growing areas located on fissured and karstified limestone rocks, which favour the removal of excess water through deep drainage, often have a high viticultural vocation. Where the parent material is calcareous marl, the soils are generally clayey and silty, retain a good amount of water and give finesse to the wines, while the granites and sandstones produce sands and gravels by alteration, which dry out very easily and contain vigour. Soils on volcanic basalts, rich in nutrients, give an imprint of robustness and fullness to the wines. Soils on alluvial sediments rich in clay are suitable for vigorous vines and wines with character. The best terroirs are rooted in soils where for most years the crop yield is moderate but of good quality, without a massive integration of chemical fertilizers and unsustainable risks for the conservation of soil quality.

SGI 2021

Soil functional factors of Italian wines

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L'Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e Geofisica Sperimentale - OGS e il Dipartimento di Matematica e Geoscienze dell'Università di Trieste sono orgogliosi di ospitare il 90° Congresso della Società Geologica Italiana a Trieste dal 14 al 16 settembre 2021. La modalità del congresso è interamente online.

Con il motto "Geologia senza frontiere" questo evento mira a promuovere le Scienze della Terra come disciplina scientifica proiettata nel futuro, oltre i confini geografici, politici e disciplinari, per comprendere meglio l'interno del Pianeta Terra e la struttura del sottosuolo, difendere la società da pericolosi eventi geologici, comprendere meglio la variabilità climatica, pianificare l'utilizzo delle georisorse in modo etico e nel rispetto dell'ambiente.


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The National Institute of Oceanography and Experimental Geophysics - OGS and the Department of Mathematics and Geosciences of the University of Trieste are proud to host the 90th Congress of the Italian Geological Society in Trieste on 14-16 September 2021.  The Congress will be held entirely online.

With the motto "Geology Without Borders" this event aims to promote Earth Sciences as a scientific discipline projected into the future, beyond geographical, political and disciplinary boundaries, to better understand the interior of Planet Earth and the structure of the subsurface, defend society from dangerous geological events, better understand climatic variability, plan the use of geo-resources in an ethical way and respecting the environment.


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Earth Sciences should be understood not only as necessary for a better understanding of the interior of the planet Earth, but also as a defense of society from dangerous geological events, for the understanding of climatic variations, for the planning and use of georesources in a ethical and respecting and protecting the environment.

technical paper

Protected areas of geoheritage which are populated are all faced with challenge of keeping balance between preserving the natural environment and human interventions for living, economic activities and safety. Dovžan Gorge Natural Monument is one of the most interesting geological sites in Slovenia. With the longest cross-section of fossil-rich Upper Paleozoic rocks exposed it is also one of more significant ones in the Southern Alps. The exposed section of 300–250 million years old rocks enables the study of the paleoenvironmental evolution of the depositional setting and the paleobiologic evolution of several fossil genera (Novak et al., 2019). As such it has high scientific as well as historical and educational value. Geological as well as the geomorphic phenomena were main reasons to protect the area as a natural monument in 1988 (Novak & Mrak, 2020). The area is part of the Karavanke mountain range and prone to various natural hazards. In historical sources many extreme weather events are recorded. The most recent one occurred in the night of 29-30 October 2018. Extreme rainfall has initiated torrent flows in the Tržiška Bistrica river basin that caused significant changes in Dovžan Gorge particularly in the riverbed. It also caused material damage on the infrastructure. Historical records reveal similar events that have taken place before and similar response to them (Novak & Mrak, 2019). This allows the assessment of the human perception of natural disasters and historical memory of them. The October 2018 event opened new aspects of nature protection and intensive economically controlled management of natural resources, in this case primarily forest. In the 2 following years interventions on slopes and in riverbed with heavy construction works severely intrude into natural environment and processes. The Dovžan Gorge Natural Monument has thus proven to be an excellent polygon for the study of natural processes and anthropogenic impacts. It therefore serves as a case study for balancing nature conservation, human activities and geohazard mitigation in geoheritage sites. The research is co-funded by the Slovenian National Committee of UNESCO, Internat. Geoscience Prog., grant No. C3330-21-456004, and its project IGCP 692 - Geoheritage for Geohazard Resilience

Tackling geohazard in populated geoheritage sites

Since the Middle Ages, Pisa was a very important center for the production of tiles and bricks using the clay of Arno and Serchio rivers. Our study focused on bricks sampled from15 buildings (both religious and civil) aged between the 12th and 17th centuries in Pisa and its neighboring territory. Investigation of iconographic and cartographic sources, together with mensio-chronological measurements were carried out to ascertain the chronology of the constructions. Typology of the mortars and binders of the wall hangings were further studied. We note that archaeomagnetic analyses on these brick ensembles were also carried out as part of this project (Genevey et al., 2019). In thin section, the mixtures of the bricks are homogeneous, while different textural features are present, hallowing grouping by morphology and granulometry of the binder and by the reciprocal relationships between the different components. The use of the same raw material, maintained for a very long time, is evident. These are artifacts obtained starting from a clayey material containing silicate debris largely attributable to quartz both in single crystals and in polycrystalline aggregates with a morphology from sub-angular to angular, and therefore not attributable to the addition of sandy components. This fact seems to indicate, rather than a supply from the Arno sediments, a source of the raw material from the deposits of smaller watercourses. The isotropic red-colored matrix due to iron oxidation - due to the firing of the bricks in furnaces with excess oxygen (oxidizing environment) at temperatures between 800 and 980 ° C - are common to all the samples, and the presence of recrystallized calcium carbonate, that involved calcareous fragments probably added to increase the porosity of the building and reduce its weight. The calcareous inclusions have a fine granulometry and are evenly distributed in the mixture, while the quantities of limestone are variable. The qualitative composition is homogeneous, while the relationships between silicon and calcium change. The comparison of the textural and compositional characteristics of the bricks of Pisa with those of the Calcinaia bricks shows considerable similarities. Based on these results we can hypothesize the origin of all these bricks from the area of Calcinaia where the presence of brick kilns is documented since the XVI century and where the nearby presence of the Arno river made transport in the city of Pisa easy.

Origin of Tuscan architectural bricks a multidisciplinary analyses

In the Ragusa area, in the carbonate rock levels known in the literature as the "Ragusa Formation", the uppermost Irminio member presents bituminous impregnations in the Tabuna and Streppenosa localities. Rock impregnated with natural bitumen is called 'asphaltic rock'; locally, it is also known as “Pietra Pece” (i.e. pitch stone). Asphaltic rock was mined here either in opencast and in tunnels, as in the Tabuna and Cava Pece mines; in an early phase, the Streppenosa and Castelluccio sites were also important. Pitch stone is characterized by excellent physical-mechanical properties and it has been used extensively over the centuries as building material: for instance, it is an ideal material for road paving and, in an industrial context, for hydrocarbon extraction. Indeed, it was at the end of the 18th century, when Dolomieu in his 'Memoire sur les iles ponces et catalogue raisonné des produits de l'Etna' spoke of a soft limestone, impregnated with hydrocarbons: 'under the July sun, the black stone can be cut with a knife', that it became known throughout Europe. Extraction and marketing were managed at an early stage by foreign companies, and the asphalt from Sicily arrived on the roads of half of Europe: Berlin had more than a million square metres of Ragusa asphalt road surfaces; other cities worth mentioning are Paris, Amsterdam, London, Milan and Palermo. Over the years, the extraction phases underwent inevitable evolutions and changes, oscillating between a natural preference for the use of rock as road surfacing and the extraction of bitumen itself: this latter was preferred by the first A.B.C.D., which built a battery of sixteen furnaces for the distillation of asphaltic rocks. But if, after the Second World War, the asphalt-related industries underwent a vast and irreversible process of devaluation, since bitumen had by then supplanted by compressed asphalt in road paving, the Sicilian Region intervened by encouraging the extraction of 'pitch stone', typical productions and the very reconversion of the asphalt industry, which saw the birth of the second A. B.C.D., where the first A. B.C.D. was built, where the production of cement obtained from exhausted asphalt rocks from distillation was added. It was in 1944 that A. Ancione SpA appeared on the Hyblaean market of SE Sicily: in this area, now disused, the enormous investments were done and there it is possible to investigate the production cycle divided into four large production areas: asphalt tiles, road asphalt (later replaced by bituminous conglomerates), mastic and lime. The study punctually analyses the first three of these sectors, which are intimately linked to C.da Tabuna quarry district and to pitchstone marketing. Finally, it is worth noting that the Tabuna-Streppenosa site has been proposed for the establishment of a Geosite of national importance pursuant to L. R. 25/2012 and with D. A. 238/2018 it has been included in the list of sites of geological interest of the Sicily Region.

The Pietra Pece: mining history and production cycle

The neo-born Majella UNESCO Global Geopark hosts more than one hundred mapped caves, some of which represent important geosites and touristic attractions. Underground karst systems are often excellent environments to investigate and characterize the stratigraphical relations, tridimensional spatial organization of geological structures, morphologies, and fluid flow pathways in the subsurface, as well as to reconstruct paleosismology, paleoclimate and landscape evolution over geological time. The Cavallone Caves geosite (CCG), in the southern sector of the massif, is one of the most important cave systems of the Geopark, being a tourist attraction since 1893, and as such one of the earliest show caves in Italy. This cave is part of a km-long inactive hypogene karst system formed by the rising of H2S-rich fluids, which turned into sulfuric acid in the oxygenated cave environment close to past water table. This site was recently investigated with a multidisciplinary approach involving structural geology, petrography, mineralogy, geochemistry, and geomorphology. Our geological investigations allowed to reconstruct the deformation history affecting this sector of the Majella massif and to unveil the main sources and the permeability pathways able to channelize rising H2S fluids from depth (Pisani et al., 2021). The geomorphological observations and the analysis of the conduits’ spatial organization indicate the presence of multiple phases of sub-horizontal karst development, reflecting the migration of the sulfuric water-table and the uplift of the Majella massif over time. The oldest (highest) cave level has been dated with 40Ar/39Ar geochronology on secondary alunite to 1.52 +/- 0.28 Ma, marking the exact timing of speleogenesis (and thus water table position) at the time of formation (D’Angeli et al., 2019). Furthermore, fault zones and hypogene karst conduits constitute a network of high-permeability structures for secondary and tertiary migration of hydrocarbons, as proven by the presence of bitumen-impregnated speleothems and hydrocarbon manifestations in the cave and surrounding outcrops. The CCG and its extraordinary location proved to be a perfect laboratory for karst sciences, structural geology, geomorphology, and a significant outcrop analog of deep hypogene karstified reservoirs. Furthermore, its touristic character makes it an ideal site to explain and promote the geodiversity of the cave and its surroundings, which covers multiple aspects of the Majella geological heritage.

The Cavallone Caves geotrail project: explaining the Majella UNESCO Global Geopark

The coastal environment is increasingly compromised by anthropogenic pressure including touristic, agricultural and industrial activities that take advantage of their proximity to the sea. Also the conservation and the protection of natural elements are compromised in this contest. Among the various natural resources to be safeguarded and enhanced, there are also geological and geomorphological ones which, together with floristic and faunal elements, constitute great value environments, worthy of being protected. Along the northeastern Italian Adriatic coast, various coastal landscapes as sandy beaches, lagoons and deltas represent a precious and preserved geodiversity. In particular, the Marano and Grado Lagoon, between the deltas of the Isonzo and Tagliamento rivers, is characterized by the presence of channels, tidal flats, islands and saltmarshes protected seaward by a system of sandy barrier islands. Here the tide draws a mosaic of brackish wetlands of great value, also thanks to the shallow depth and the high supply of fresh water from the rivers that flow into the lagoon. Further east, the tidal flats between the mouth of the Isonzo River, the natural eastern boundary of the Grado Lagoon, and the bay of Panzano, extend this articulated and fragile complex of wetlands until the karst cliffs.

Coastal geosites and their valorization: a case study along the North-Eastern Italian Adriatic coast

Geosites represent the geological, geomorphological, palaeontological, mineralogical or other interests in a territory with scientific and environmental values of the landscape heritage (Wimbledon et al., 1996). Generally, geosites are natural architectures, or singularities of the landscape, which testify to geological processes that shaped our planet. They provide an indispensable contribution to the understanding of the geological history of a region and represent values of exceptional importance for the landscape and cultural, educational and recreational attractions.

The Atlas of Geosites of Sicily

The Manciano Sandstone consists of medium to very coarse, fairly well-sorted, lithic to lithic-arkosic sandstone, with calcite cement, and minor intercalations of sandy conglomerates. It represents a key lithostratigraphic formation for the interpretation of the Miocene stratigraphic and structural evolution of the Tyrrhenian sector of the central-northern Apennines. This formation crops out discontinuously over the Ligurian Units in northwestern Latium and southern Tuscany, and two geosites have already been identified: along the S.P. F32 Farnese-Manciano, in the Tuscany Region, and along the Latium coast (Bagni di S. Agostino). The best exposures are observable in some quarries near Manciano (Gamberaio, Poggio la Vecchia, Scarceta), where a detailed facies analysis has been carried out (Rossi et al., 2017). However, access to these sites is generally not allowed during mining activities, and when this activity ceases, the quarry fronts are buried in order to proceed with the environmental recovery of the area. We think that in this case, the scientific interest of the outcrops should be considered prevalent compared to a traditional morphological recovery, often obtained with questionable results. On this basis we present a possible functional recovery of the Poggio la Vecchia quarry. Along its fronts, which develop over 80 m in height, the diamond cut walls show extraordinary exposures and, at the end of quarrying, an area of about 9ha could be preserved for geo-touristic itineraries, exalting the beautiful and unique landscape, and the panoramic views on the beneath Fiora valley. The regularization of the quarry fronts would allow each floor to be used in its completeness, without discontinuity, and in safe conditions. The geodiversity of these outcrops allows a wide range of possibilities for scientific dissemination and information, with particular emphasis on sedimentological and paleontological topics. The most common structures include medium-scale cross-stratification formed by the migration of 2D and 3D dunes (tabular- and trough-cross-bedding) and small-scale cross-lamination formed by the migration of waves and current ripples, as well as well preserved ichnofacies (Macaronichnus, Ophiomorpha, Skolithos, Cruziana, etc.) and interesting paleontological content, with layers containing oysters and echinids (Scutella striatula, S. leoganensis , S. paulensis). Another peculiarity is the presence of Liesegang rings, whose genesis is related to the main fracture systems affecting the rock bodies. In each of the identified stops, it will be possible to get a simple explanation of its peculiarities through information totems or Q.R. code. It would be desirable that this type of recovery project was also extended to the other two quarries that could form together with the near geosite an extended geopark.

The functional recovery of the Poggio la Vecchia Quarry: an Example of Geo-Heritage conservation

On the occasion of the 75th anniversary, the Geological Survey of Slovenia published the book “Fossils of Slovenia - A Look into the Past for Reflection on the Future", authored by Jurkovšek and Kolar-Jurkovšek, which comprises 263 pages, 33 plates with fossils and 411 cited works. The book presents a selection of Slovenian fossils that are important for understanding the geological time and environment in which rocks containing fossils were formed, and consequently for knowing the geological structure of Slovenia. The emphasis is on macrofossils, i.e. those that are already visible to the naked eye without optical or electronic aids. In the introductory chapters, in addition to some basics of paleontology, the path from the earliest evolutionary ideas to the beginnings of paleontology as an independent scientific discipline is presented. The emphasis is on the modern understanding of fossils, their importance for biostratigraphy and paleoecology, and for the development of modern evolutionary thought. A minor part explains the geotectonic definition of Slovenia, which is located at the junction of the Southern Alps, Dinarides, Eastern Alps and Pannonian Basin. The most extensive part is devoted to geological, biological and climatic events on Earth from the Precambrian to the present day. Part on each geological period provides data on important fossils and their finds in Slovenia, which define rocks by age, paleogeography and paleoecology. It is therefore a kind of biostratigraphic walk through the geological history of Slovenia. All geological periods are balanced according to their duration, spread of sedimentary rocks in Slovenia and frequency of fossil finds. The selection of localities and fossils is largely subjective and depends on the level of research. Moreover, a large number of additional research data are available for the Cenozoic formations, which are economically somewhat better researched in Slovenia due to the deposits of non-metallic mineral raw materials. The key reason for writing the book Fossils of Slovenia is that fossils are an important part of Slovenian (and world) natural heritage, which in the past, together with numerous collections of fossils scattered in various institutions in Slovenia and abroad, have often disappeared or been destroyed over time; we know about them from mentions in the older literature. In this book, all important studies of Slovenian and foreign researchers of fossils found in Slovenia are taken into account. Once it used to be that the present is the key to understanding the past, but today in geology the other paradigm that learns us the past (in many cases) is the key to understanding the present (and probably also to predict the future) is equally valid. Therefore, it is worth thinking what the human species has to offer in the future, especially with regard to climate change.

Fossils of Slovenia

Many studies show that grapevines develop differently, depending on their growing area. This phenomenon is shown by the different growth behaviour of the plant. Historical price developments in individual wine-growing areas have led to precisely delimited cultivation sites, down to the smallest sites, forming a pedoclimatic unit, which is identified with the term “terroir”or “climat” or simply “vineyard site”. Often a clearly defined and recognizable wine type is attributed to these units. All over the world, great importance in grape cultivation is given to the grapes’ growth habitat and intensive research of the connections between growing area and wine quality is conducted. In this context it must be considered, that the concept of “terroir” (“climat”, vineyard site) comprises all other viticultural measures which - in part of necessity - shape the cultivation of a particular location. Especially in pedoclimatically heterogeneous areas, like for example South Tyrol, it is a great challenge to recognize and evaluate the site-specific effects due to a multitude of variables. Some exemplary site studies illustrate the impact of the vineyard location on the wine quality. The significance of soil characteristics, geographical situation and microclimate conditions is demonstrated. Possible correlations between individual site characteristics and the types of sensory characteristics are presented and the vintage effect relating to the site-specific effect is defined. The site-specific effect is reflected in the wine quality, which means wines of one grape variety produced in different locations, even if they are very close, show different characteristics. Conversely, wines from different and even distant locations, may show some similarities. Generally, the vintage effect is more significant than the site effect. The climatic and geographic parameters, such as sea level, average annual temperature etc., mostly show more incisive effects than the geopedological parameters (pH-value, grain size composition, etc.). In some cases, however, the importance of these variables could be recognized as well. The greatest challenge in pedoclimatically heterogeneous areas, is the grouping of individual sites into a site unit with certain expected wine characteristics and their delimitation. 

Possible site-specific effects on wine quality based on various vineyard sites in a heterogeneous area like South Tyrol

Purpose of this research is to quantitatively assess the mineral component of vineyard soils, with particular attention to the mineralogical analysis of clays, which represent an element of high importance in the vineyard culture as well as in general agriculture. An X-ray diffraction (XRD) / thermogravimetric (TG) multi-technique analytical approach was developed, tested on soil samples taken from vineyards around the world. This codified analytical procedure was necessary to obtain precise qualitative and quantitative mineralogical data, globally comparable to distinguish the geopedological identity of the vineyards. Soil samples from vineyards of various locations were analysed, in very different geological conditions. The bulk-rock quantitative phase analysis (QPA) was obtained by the Rietveld method while the detailed composition of the clay-sized fraction was determined by modelling of the oriented X-ray diffraction patterns. The research provided a precise classification of the mineral component of soils, distinguishing the mineral phases of the clays and the so-called mixed-layer clay minerals. We found that the content in mixed layers can be directly correlated with the water retention and the cation exchange capacity ​​of the soil, while the presence of other clayey minerals and phyllosilicates in this research did not affect this CEC parameter, which codes the fertility level of the soils. The study demonstrates that terroir, in particular soils formed in complex or very different geological conditions, can only be effectively interpreted by properly analysing its mineral phases, in particular the mixed-layer clay component. These are characteristic abiotic ecological indicators, which may have specific eco-physiological influences on the plant.

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Tackling geohazard in populated geoheritage sites

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