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This paper studies whether emergent languages in a signaling game follow Zipf&#39;s law of abbreviation (ZLA), especially when the communication ability of agents is limited because of interfering noises. ZLA is a well-known tendency in human languages where the more frequently a word is used, the shorter it will be. Surprisingly, previous work demonstrated that emergent languages do not obey ZLA at all when neural agents play a signaling game. It also reported that a ZLA-like tendency appeared by adding an explicit penalty on word lengths, which can be considered some external factors in reality such as articulatory effort. We hypothesize, on the other hand, that there might be not only such external factors but also some internal factors related to cognitive abilities. We assume that it could be simulated by modeling the effect of noises on the agents&#39; environment. In our experimental setup, the hidden states of the LSTM-based speaker and listener were added with Gaussian noise, while the channel was subject to discrete random replacement. Our results suggest that noise on a speaker is one of the factors for ZLA or at least causes emergent languages to approach ZLA, while noise on a listener and a channel is not.

ACL 2021

On the Relationship between Zipf&#39;s Law of Abbreviation and Interfering Noise in Emergent Languages

zipf's law of abbreviation

emergent language

emergent communication

**Welcome to ACL-IJCNLP 2021!**

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This Joint Conference of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (ACL-IJCNLP 2021) was to be held in Bangkok, Thailand, during August 1-6, 2021 and is now virtual on the Underline platform.

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This paper studies whether emergent languages in a signaling game follow Zipf's law of abbreviation (ZLA), especially when the communication ability of agents is limited because of interfering noises. ZLA is a well-known tendency in human languages where the more frequently a word is used, the shorter it will be. Surprisingly, previous work demonstrated that emergent languages do not obey ZLA at all when neural agents play a signaling game. It also reported that a ZLA-like tendency appeared by adding an explicit penalty on word lengths, which can be considered some external factors in reality such as articulatory effort. We hypothesize, on the other hand, that there might be not only such external factors but also some internal factors related to cognitive abilities. We assume that it could be simulated by modeling the effect of noises on the agents' environment. In our experimental setup, the hidden states of the LSTM-based speaker and listener were added with Gaussian noise, while the channel was subject to discrete random replacement. Our results suggest that noise on a speaker is one of the factors for ZLA or at least causes emergent languages to approach ZLA, while noise on a listener and a channel is not.

On the Relationship between Zipf's Law of Abbreviation and Interfering Noise in Emergent Languages

workshop paper

Aspect category detection (ACD) in sentiment analysis aims to identify the aspect categories mentioned in a sentence. In this paper, we formulate ACD in the few-shot learning scenario. However, existing few-shot learning approaches mainly focus on single-label predictions. These methods can not work well for the ACD task since a sentence may contain multiple aspect categories. Therefore, we propose a multi-label few-shot learning method based on the prototypical network. To alleviate the noise, we design two effective attention mechanisms. The support-set attention aims to extract better prototypes by removing irrelevant aspects. The query-set attention computes multiple prototype-specific representations for each query instance, which are then used to compute accurate distances with the corresponding prototypes. To achieve multi-label inference, we further learn a dynamic threshold per instance by a policy network. Extensive experimental results on three datasets demonstrate that the proposed method significantly outperforms strong baselines.

Multi-Label Few-Shot Learning for Aspect Category Detection

Argument pair extraction (APE) is a research task for extracting arguments from two passages and identifying potential argument pairs. Prior research work treats this task as a sequence labeling problem and a binary classification problem on two passages that are directly concatenated together, which has a limitation of not fully utilizing the unique characteristics and inherent relations of two different passages. This paper proposes a novel attention-guided multi-layer multi-cross encoding scheme to address the challenges. The new model processes two passages with two individual sequence encoders and updates their representations using each other’s representations through attention. In addition, the pair prediction part is formulated as a table-filling problem by updating the representations of two sequences’ Cartesian product. Furthermore, an auxiliary attention loss is introduced to guide each argument to align to its paired argument. An extensive set of experiments show that the new model significantly improves the APE performance over several alternatives.

Argument Pair Extraction via Attention-guided Multi-Layer Multi-Cross Encoding

The goal of argumentation mining is to automatically extract argumentation structures from argumentative texts. Most existing methods determine argumentative relations by exhaustively enumerating all possible pairs of argument components, which suffer from low efficiency and class imbalance. Moreover, due to the complex nature of argumentation, there is, so far, no universal method that can address both tree and non-tree structured argumentation. Towards these issues, we propose a neural transition-based model for argumentation mining, which incrementally builds an argumentation graph by generating a sequence of actions, avoiding inefficient enumeration operations. Furthermore, our model can handle both tree and non-tree structured argumentation without introducing any structural constraints. Experimental results show that our model achieves the best performance on two public datasets of different structures.

A Neural Transition-based Model for Argumentation Mining

Sentence embeddings are an important component of many natural language processing (NLP) systems. Like word embeddings, sentence embeddings are typically learned on large text corpora and then transferred to various downstream tasks, such as clustering and retrieval. Unlike word embeddings, the highest performing solutions for learning sentence embeddings require labelled data, limiting their usefulness to languages and domains where labelled data is abundant. In this paper, we present DeCLUTR: Deep Contrastive Learning for Unsupervised Textual Representations. Inspired by recent advances in deep metric learning (DML), we carefully design a self-supervised objective for learning universal sentence embeddings that does not require labelled training data. When used to extend the pretraining of transformer-based language models, our approach closes the performance gap between unsupervised and supervised pretraining for universal sentence encoders. Importantly, our experiments suggest that the quality of the learned embeddings scale with both the number of trainable parameters and the amount of unlabelled training data. Our code and pretrained models are publicly available and can be easily adapted to new domains or used to embed unseen text.

DeCLUTR: Deep Contrastive Learning for Unsupervised Textual Representations

Pretrained language models (PLM) achieve surprising performance on the Choice of Plausible Alternatives (COPA) task. However, whether PLMs have truly acquired the ability of causal reasoning remains a question. In this paper, we investigate the problem of semantic similarity bias and reveal the vulnerability of current COPA models by certain attacks. Previous solutions that tackle the superficial cues of unbalanced token distribution still encounter the same problem of semantic bias, even more seriously due to the utilization of more training data. We mitigate this problem by simply adding a regularization loss and experimental results show that this solution not only improves the model’s generalization ability, but also assists the models to perform more robustly on a challenging dataset, BCOPA-CE, which has unbiased token distribution and is more difficult for models to distinguish cause and effect.

Doing Good or Doing Right? Exploring the Weakness of Commonsense Causal Reasoning Models

Non-autoregressive neural machine translation (NAT) usually employs sequence-level knowledge distillation using autoregressive neural machine translation (AT) as its teacher model.
However, a NAT model often outputs shorter sentences than an AT model.
In this work, we propose sequence-level knowledge distillation (SKD) using perturbed length-aware positional encoding and apply it to a student model, the Levenshtein Transformer.
Our method outperformed a standard Levenshtein Transformer by 2.5 points in bilingual evaluation understudy (BLEU) at maximum in a WMT14 German to English translation.
The NAT model output longer sentences than the baseline NAT models.

Using Perturbed Length-aware Positional Encoding for Non-autoregressive Neural Machine Translation

Graph-to-text generation has benefited from pre-trained language models (PLMs) in achieving better performance than structured graph encoders. However, they fail to fully utilize the structure information of the input graph. In this paper, we aim to further improve the performance of the pre-trained language model by proposing a structured graph-to-text model with a two-step fine-tuning mechanism which first fine-tunes the model on Wikipedia before adapting to the graph-to-text generation. In addition to using the traditional token and position embeddings to encode the knowledge graph (KG), we propose a novel tree-level embedding method to capture the inter-dependency structures of the input graph. This new approach has significantly improved the performance of all text generation metrics for the English WebNLG 2017 dataset.

Stage-wise Fine-tuning for Graph-to-Text Generation

The neural hidden Markov model has been proposed as an alternative to attention mechanism in machine translation with recurrent neural networks. However, since the introduction of the transformer models, its performance has been surpassed. This work proposes to introduce the concept of the hidden Markov model to the transformer architecture, which outperforms the transformer baseline. Interestingly, we find that the zero-order model already provides promising performance, giving it an edge compared to a model with first-order dependency, which performs similarly but is significantly slower in training and decoding.

Transformer-Based Direct Hidden Markov Model for Machine Translation

Although BERT based relation classification (RC) models have achieved significant improvements over the traditional deep learning models, it seems that no consensus can be reached on what is the optimal architecture, since there are many design choices available. In this work, we design a comprehensive search space for BERT based RC models and employ a modified version of efficient neural architecture search (ENAS) method to automatically discover the design choices mentioned above. Experiments on eight benchmark RC tasks show that our method is efficient and effective in finding better architectures than the baseline BERT based RC models. Ablation study demonstrates the necessity of our search space design and the effectiveness of our search method. We also show that our framework can also apply to other entity related tasks like coreference resolution and span based named entity recognition (NER).

AutoRC: Improving BERT Based Relation Classification Models via Architecture Search

Despite the recent advancements of attention-based deep learning architectures across a majority of Natural Language Processing tasks, their application remains limited in a low-resource setting because of a lack of pre-trained models for such languages. In this study, we make the first attempt to investigate the challenges of adapting these techniques for an extremely low-resource language -- Sumerian cuneiform -- one of the world's oldest written languages attested from at least the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. Specifically, we introduce the first cross-lingual information extraction pipeline for Sumerian, which includes part-of-speech tagging, named entity recognition, and machine translation. We further curate InterpretLR, an interpretability toolkit for low-resource NLP, and use it alongside human attributions to make sense of the models. We emphasize on human evaluations to gauge all our techniques. Notably, most components of our pipeline can be generalised to any other language to obtain an interpretable execution of the techniques, especially in a low-resource setting. We publicly release all software, model checkpoints, and a novel dataset with domain-specific pre-processing to promote further research.

On the Relationship between Zipf's Law of Abbreviation and Interfering Noise in Emergent Languages

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On the Relationship between Zipf's Law of Abbreviation and Interfering Noise in Emergent Languages

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