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Models based on the transformer architecture, such as BERT, have marked a crucial step forward in the field of Natural Language Processing. Importantly, they allow the creation of word embeddings that capture important semantic information about words in context. However, as single entities, these embeddings are difficult to interpret and the models used to create them have been described as opaque. Binder and colleagues proposed an intuitive embedding space where each dimension is based on one of 65 core semantic features. Unfortunately, the space only exists for a small data-set of 535 words, limiting its uses. Previous work (Utsumi, 2018, 2020; Turton et al., 2020) has shown that Binder features can be derived from static embeddings and successfully extrapolated to a large new vocabulary. Taking the next step, this paper demonstrates that Binder features can be derived from the BERT embedding space. This provides two things; (1) semantic feature values derived from contextualised word embeddings and (2) insights into how semantic features are represented across the different layers of the BERT model.

IJCNLP-AACL 2021

Deriving Contextualised Semantic Features from BERT (and Other Transformer Model) Embeddings

semantics

transformers

lexical

**Welcome to ACL-IJCNLP 2021!**

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The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

workshop paper

Slang is a common type of informal language, but its flexible nature and paucity of data resources present challenges for existing natural language systems. We take an initial step toward machine generation of slang by developing a framework that models the speaker’s word choice in slang context. Our framework encodes novel slang meaning by relating the conventional and slang senses of a word while incorporating syntactic and contextual knowledge in slang usage. We construct the framework using a combination of probabilistic inference and neural contrastive learning. We perform rigorous evaluations on three slang dictionaries and show that our approach not only outperforms state-of-the-art language models, but also better predicts the historical emergence of slang word usages from 1960s to 2000s. We interpret the proposed models and find that the contrastively learned semantic space is sensitive to the similarities between slang and conventional senses of words. Our work creates opportunities for the automated generation and interpretation of informal language.

Computational Framework for Slang Generation


Leveraging additional unlabeled data to boost model performance is common practice in machine learning and natural language processing. For generation tasks, if there is overlap between the additional data and the target text evaluation data, then training on the additional data is training on answers of the test set. This leads to overly-inflated scores with the additional data compared to real-world testing scenarios and problems when comparing models. We study the AMR dataset and Gigaword, which is popularly used for improving AMR-to-text generators, and find significant overlap between Gigaword and a subset of the AMR dataset. We propose methods for excluding parts of Gigaword to remove this overlap, and show that our approach leads to a more realistic evaluation of the task of AMR-to-text generation. Going forward, we give simple best-practice recommendations for leveraging additional data in AMR-to-text generation.

Avoiding Overlap in Data Augmentation for AMR-to-Text Generation

Wet laboratory protocols (WLPs) are critical for conveying reproducible procedures in biological research. They are composed of instructions written in natural language describing the step-wise processing of materials by specific actions. This process flow description for reagents and materials synthesis in WLPs can be captured by material state transfer graphs (MSTGs), which encode global temporal and causal relationships between actions. Here, we propose methods to automatically generate a MSTG for a given protocol by extracting all action relationships across multiple sentences. We also note that previous corpora and methods focused primarily on local intra-sentence relationships between actions and entities and did not address two critical issues: (i) resolution of implicit arguments and (ii) establishing long-range dependencies across sentences. We propose a new model that incrementally learns latent structures and is better suited to resolving inter-sentence relations and implicit arguments. This model draws upon a new corpus WLP-MSTG which was created by extending annotations in the WLP corpora for inter-sentence relations and implicit arguments. Our model achieves an F1 score of 54.53% for temporal and causal relations in protocols from our corpus, which is a significant improvement over previous models - DyGIE++:28.17%; spERT:27.81%. We make our annotated WLP-MSTG corpus available to the research community.

Learning Latent Structures for Cross Action Phrase Relations in Wet Lab Protocols

To translate large volumes of text in a globally connected world, more and more translators are integrating machine translation (MT) and post-editing (PE) into their translation workflows to generate publishable quality translations. While this process has been shown to save time and reduce errors, the task of translation is changing from mostly text production from scratch to fixing errors within useful but partly incorrect MT output. This is affecting the interface design of translation tools, where better support for text editing tasks is required. Here, we present the first study that investigates the usefulness of mid-air hand gestures in combination with the keyboard (GK) for text editing in PE of MT. Guided by a gesture elicitation study with 14 freelance translators, we develop a prototype supporting mid-air hand gestures for cursor placement, text selection, deletion, and reordering. These gestures combined with the keyboard facilitate all editing types required for PE. An evaluation of the prototype shows that the average editing duration of GK is only slightly slower than the standard mouse and keyboard (MK), even though participants are very familiar with the latter, and relative novices to the former. Furthermore, the qualitative analysis shows positive attitudes towards hand gestures for PE, especially when manipulating single words.

Mid-Air Hand Gestures for Post-Editing of Machine Translation

We present a new probing dataset named *PROST: Physical Reasoning about Objects Through Space and Time*. 
This dataset contains 18,736 multiple-choice questions made from 14 manually curated templates, covering 10 physical reasoning concepts. All questions are designed to probe both causal and masked language models in a zero-shot setting. We conduct an extensive analysis which demonstrates that state-of-the-art pretrained models are inadequate at physical reasoning: they are influenced by the order in which answer options are presented to them, they struggle when the superlative in a question is inverted (e.g., *most* <-> *least*), and increasing the amount of pretraining data and parameters only yields minimal improvements. These results provide support for the hypothesis that current pretrained models' ability to reason about physical interactions is inherently limited by a lack of real world experience. By highlighting these limitations, we hope to motivate the development of models with a human-like understanding of the physical world.

{PROST}: {P}hysical Reasoning about Objects through Space and Time

Simultaneous speech-to-text translation is widely useful in many scenarios. The conventional cascaded approach uses a pipeline of streaming ASR followed by simultaneous MT, but suffers from error propagation and extra latency. To alleviate these issues, recent efforts attempt to directly translate the source speech into target text simultaneously, but this is much harder due to the combination of two separate tasks. We instead propose a new paradigm with the advantages of both cascaded and end-to-end approaches. The key idea is to use two separate, but synchronized, decoders on streaming ASR and direct speech-to-text translation (ST), respectively, and the intermediate results of ASR guide the decoding policy of (but is not fed as input to) ST. During training time, we use multitask learning to jointly learn these two tasks with a shared encoder. En-to-De and En-to-Es experiments on the MuST-C dataset demonstrate that our proposed technique achieves substantially better translation quality at similar levels of latency.

Direct Simultaneous Speech-to-Text Translation Assisted by Synchronized Streaming ASR

Understanding linguistics and morphology of resource-scarce code-mixed texts remains a key challenge in text processing. Although word embedding comes in handy to support downstream tasks for low-resource languages, there are plenty of scopes in improving the quality of language representation particularly for code-mixed languages. In this paper, we propose HIT, a robust representation learning method for code-mixed texts. HIT is a hierarchical transformer-based framework that captures the semantic relationship among words and hierarchically learns the sentence-level semantics using a fused attention mechanism. HIT incorporates two attention modules, a multi-headed self-attention and an outer product attention module, and computes their weighted sum to obtain the attention weights. Our evaluation of HIT on one European (Spanish) and five Indic (Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam) languages across four NLP tasks on eleven datasets suggests significant performance improvement against various state-of-the-art systems. We further show the adaptability of learned representation across tasks in a transfer learning setup (with and without fine-tuning).

HIT - A Hierarchically Fused Deep Attention Network for Robust Code-mixed Language Representation

The paradigm of data programming, that uses weak supervision in the form of rules/labelling functions, and semi-supervised learning, which augments small amounts of labelled data with a large unlabelled dataset, have shown great promise in several text classification scenarios. In this work, we argue that by not using any labelled data, data programming based approaches can yield suboptimal performances, particularly in cases when the labelling functions are noisy. The first contribution of this work is an introduction of a framework, SPEAR, which is a semi-supervised data programming paradigm, which learns a joint model that effectively uses the rules/labelling functions along with semi-supervised loss functions on the feature space. Next, we also study SPEAR-SS, which additionally does subset selection on top of the joint semi-supervised data programming objective, and selects a set of examples that can be used as the labelled set. The goal of SPEAR-SS, is to ensure that the labelled data can complement the labelling functions, thereby benefiting from both data-programming as well as appropriately selected data for human labelling. We demonstrate that by effectively combining semi-supervision, data-programming and subset selection paradigms, we significantly outperform the current state-of-the-art on seven publicly available datasets.

Semi-Supervised Data Programming with Subset Selection

Selectional Preference (SP) captures the tendency of a word to semantically select other words to be in direct syntactic relation with it, and thus informs us about syntactic word configurations that are meaningful. Therefore SP is a valuable resource for Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems and for semanticists. Learning SP has generally been seen as a supervised task, because it requires a parsed corpus as a source of syntactically related word pairs. In this paper we show that simple distributional analysis can learn a good amount of SP without the need for an annotated corpus. We extend the general word embedding technique with directional word context windows giving word representations that better capture syntagmatic relations. We test on the SP-10K dataset and demonstrate that syntagmatic embeddings outperform the paradigmatic embeddings. We also evaluate supervised version of these embeddings and show that unsupervised syntagmatic embeddings can be as good as supervised embeddings.

Syntagmatic Word Embeddings for Unsupervised Learning of Selectional Preferences

Pre-trained language models have emerged as highly successful methods for learning good text representations. However, the amount of structured knowledge retained in such models, and how (if at all) it can be extracted, remains an open question. In this work, we aim at directly learning text representations that leverage structured knowledge about entities mentioned in the text. This can be particularly beneficial for downstream tasks which are knowledge-intensive. Our approach utilizes self-attention between words in the text and knowledge graph (KG) entities mentioned in the text. While existing methods require entity-linked data for pre-training, we train using a mention-span masking objective and a candidate ranking objective -- which doesn't require any entity-links and only assumes access to an alias table for retrieving candidates, enabling large-scale pre-training. We show that the proposed model learns knowledge-informed text representations that yield improvements on the downstream tasks over existing methods.

Deriving Contextualised Semantic Features from BERT (and Other Transformer Model) Embeddings

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Computational Framework for Slang Generation

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