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Recent studies on semantic frame induction show that relatively high performance has been achieved by using clustering-based methods with contextualized word embeddings. However, there are two potential drawbacks to these methods: one is that they focus too much on the superficial information of the frame-evoking verb and the other is that they tend to divide the instances of the same verb into too many different frame clusters. To overcome these drawbacks, we propose a semantic frame induction method using masked word embeddings and two-step clustering. Through experiments on the English FrameNet data, we demonstrate that using the masked word embeddings is effective for avoiding too much reliance on the surface information of frame-evoking verbs and that two-step clustering can improve the number of resulting frame clusters for the instances of the same verb.

IJCNLP-AACL 2021

Semantic Frame Induction using Masked Word Embeddings and Two-Step Clustering

masked word embedding

semantic frame induction

contextualized word embedding

framenet

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The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

poster

The uniform information density (UID) hypothesis, which posits that speakers behaving optimally tend to distribute information uniformly across a linguistic signal, has gained traction in psycholinguistics as an explanation for certain syntactic, morphological, and prosodic choices. In this work, we explore whether the UID hypothesis can be operationalized as an inductive bias for statistical language modeling. Specifically, we augment the canonical MLE objective for training language models with a regularizer that encodes UID. In experiments on ten languages spanning five language families, we find that using UID regularization consistently improves perplexity in language models, having a larger effect when training data is limited. Moreover, via an analysis of generated sequences, we find that UID-regularized language models have other desirable properties, e.g., they generate text that is more lexically diverse. Our results not only suggest that UID is a reasonable inductive bias for language modeling, but also provide an alternative validation of the UID hypothesis using modern-day NLP tools.

A Cognitive Regularizer for Language Modeling

According to the self-determination theory, the levels of satisfaction of three basic needs (competence, autonomy and relatedness) have implications on people's everyday life and career. We benchmark the novel task of automatically detecting those needs on short posts in English, by modelling it as a ternary classification task, and as three binary classification tasks. A detailed manual analysis shows that the latter has advantages in the real-world scenario, and that our best models achieve similar performances as a trained human annotator.

What Motivates You? Benchmarking Automatic Detection of Basic Needs from Short Posts

In computational psycholinguistics, various language models have been evaluated against human reading behavior (e.g., eye movement) to build human-like computational models. However, most previous efforts have focused almost exclusively on English, despite the recent trend towards linguistic universal within the general community. In order to fill the gap, this paper investigates whether the established results in computational psycholinguistics can be generalized across languages. Specifically, we re-examine an established generalization ---\textit{the lower perplexity a language model has, the more human-like the language model is}--- in Japanese with typologically different structures from English. Our experiments demonstrate that this established generalization exhibits a surprising lack of universality; namely, lower perplexity is not always human-like. Moreover, this discrepancy between English and Japanese is further explored from the perspective of (non-)uniform information density. Overall, our results suggest that a cross-lingual evaluation will be necessary to construct human-like computational models.

Lower Perplexity is Not Always Human-Like

Lately proposed Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) systems have approached the estimated upper bound of the task on standard evaluation benchmarks. However, these systems typically implement the disambiguation of words in a document almost independently, underutilizing sense and word dependency in context. In this paper, we convert the nearly isolated decisions into interrelated ones by exposing senses in context when learning sense embeddings in a similarity-based Sense Aware Context Exploitation (SACE) architecture. Meanwhile, we enhance the context embedding learning with selected sentences from the same document, rather than utilizing only the sentence where each ambiguous word appears. Experiments on both English and multilingual WSD datasets have shown the effectiveness of our approach, surpassing previous state-of-the-art by large margins (3.7% and 1.2% respectively), especially on few-shot (14.3%) and zero-shot (35.9%) scenarios.

Word Sense Disambiguation: Towards Interactive Context Exploitation from Both Word and Sense Perspectives

The advent of contextual word embeddings — representations of words which incorporate semantic and syntactic information from their context—has led to tremendous improvements on a wide variety of NLP tasks. However, recent contextual models have prohibitively high computational cost in many use-cases and are often hard to interpret. In this work, we demonstrate that our proposed distillation method, which is a simple extension of CBOW-based training, allows to significantly improve computational efficiency of NLP applications, while outperforming the quality of existing static embeddings trained from scratch as well as those distilled from previously proposed methods. As a side-effect, our approach also allows a fair comparison of both contextual and static embeddings via standard lexical evaluation tasks.

Obtaining Better Static Word Embeddings Using Contextual Embedding Models

A critical challenge faced by supervised word sense disambiguation (WSD) is the lack of large annotated datasets with sufficient coverage of words in their diversity of senses. This inspired recent research on few-shot WSD using meta-learning. While such work has successfully applied meta-learning to learn new word senses from very few examples, its performance still lags behind its fully-supervised counterpart. Aiming to further close this gap, we propose a model of semantic memory for WSD in a meta-learning setting. Semantic memory encapsulates prior experiences seen throughout the lifetime of the model, which aids better generalization in limited data settings. Our model is based on hierarchical variational inference and incorporates an adaptive memory update rule via a hypernetwork. We show our model advances the state of the art in few-shot WSD, supports effective learning in extremely data scarce (e.g. one-shot) scenarios and produces meaning prototypes that capture similar senses of distinct words.

Meta-Learning with Variational Semantic Memory for Word Sense Disambiguation

Transformer-based language models (LMs) pretrained on large text collections implicitly store a wealth of lexical semantic knowledge, but it is non-trivial to extract that knowledge effectively from their parameters. Inspired by prior work on semantic specialization of static word embedding (WE) models, we show that it is possible to expose and enrich lexical knowledge from the LMs, that is, to specialize them to serve as effective and universal "decontextualized" word encoders even when fed input words "in isolation" (i.e., without any context). Their transformation into such word encoders is achieved through a simple and efficient lexical fine-tuning procedure (termed LexFit) based on dual-encoder network structures. Further, we show that LexFit can yield effective word encoders even with limited lexical supervision and, via cross-lingual transfer, in different languages without any readily available external knowledge. Our evaluation over four established, structurally different lexical-level tasks in 8 languages indicates the superiority of LexFit-based WEs over standard static WEs (e.g., fastText) and WEs from vanilla LMs. Other extensive experiments and ablation studies further profile the LexFit framework, and indicate best practices and performance variations across LexFit variants, languages, and lexical tasks, also directly questioning the usefulness of traditional WE models in the era of large neural models.

LexFit: Lexical Fine-Tuning of Pretrained Language Models

We present an end-to-end neural approach to generate English sentences from formal meaning representations, Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs). We use a rather standard bi-LSTM sequence-to-sequence model, work with a linearized DRS input representation, and evaluate character-level and word-level decoders. We obtain very encouraging results in terms of reference-based automatic metrics such as BLEU. But because such metrics only evaluate the surface level of generated output, we develop a new metric, ROSE, that targets specific semantic phenomena. We do this with five DRS generation challenge sets focusing on tense, grammatical number, polality, named entities and quantities. The aim of these challenge sets is to assess the neural generator’s systematicity and generalization to unseen inputs.

Evaluation Text Generation from Discourse Representation Structures

In a current experiment we were testing CommonGen dataset for structure-to-text task from GEM living benchmark with the constraint-based POINTER model. POINTER represents a hybrid architecture, combining insertion-based and transformer paradigms, predicting the token and the insertion position at the same time. The text is therefore generated gradually in a parallel non-autoregressive manner, given the set of keywords. The pretrained model was fine-tuned on a training split of the CommonGen dataset and the generation result was compared to the validation and challenge splits. The received metrics outputs, which measure lexical equivalence, semantic similarity and diversity, are discussed in details in a present system description.

System Description for the CommonGen task with the POINTER model

A summary quality measure is judged by how well it correlates with quality scores produced by human annotators. A higher correlation with human scores is considered to be a decisive indicator of a better measure. In this work we present observations that cast doubt on this view. We also show a possibility of an alternative indicator for selecting the best measure from a family of measures, a criterion that does not rely on human scores.

Semantic Frame Induction using Masked Word Embeddings and Two-Step Clustering

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