Thailand

An automated system that could assist a judge in predicting the outcome of a case would help expedite the judicial process. For such a system to be practically useful, predictions by the system should be explainable. To promote research in developing such a system, we introduce ILDC (Indian Legal Documents Corpus). ILDC is a large corpus of 35k Indian Supreme Court cases annotated with original court decisions. A portion of the corpus (a separate test set) is annotated with gold standard explanations by legal experts. Based on ILDC, we propose the task of Court Judgment Prediction and Explanation (CJPE). The task requires an automated system to predict an explainable outcome of a case. We experiment with a battery of baseline models for case predictions and propose a hierarchical occlusion based model for explainability. Our best prediction model has an accuracy of 78% versus 94% for human legal experts, pointing towards the complexity of the prediction task. The analysis of explanations by the proposed algorithm reveals a significant difference in the point of view of the algorithm and legal experts for explaining the judgments, pointing towards scope for future research.

IJCNLP-AACL 2021

ILDC for CJPE: Indian Legal Documents Corpus for Court Judgment Prediction and Explanation

legal case prediction

legal nlp

model explanation

**Welcome to ACL-IJCNLP 2021!**

The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP). 

As in previous years, the program of the conference includes a poster session, tutorials, workshops and demonstrations in addition to the main conference.


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The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

technical paper

This paper proposes a sophisticated neural architecture to incorporate bilingual dictionaries into Neural Machine Translation (NMT) models. By introducing three novel components: Pointer, Disambiguator, and Copier, our method PDC achieves the following merits inherently compared with previous efforts: (1) Pointer leverages the semantic information from bilingual dictionaries, for the first time, to better locate source words whose translation in dictionaries can potentially be used; (2) Disambiguator synthesizes contextual information from the source view and the target view, both of which contribute to distinguishing the proper translation of a specific source word from multiple candidates in dictionaries; (3) Copier systematically connects Pointer and Disambiguator based on a hierarchical copy mechanism seamlessly integrated with Transformer, thereby building an end-to-end architecture that could avoid error propagation problems in alternative pipe-line methods. The experimental results on Chinese-English and English-Japanese benchmarks demonstrate the PDC's overall superiority and effectiveness of each component.

Point, Disambiguate and Copy: Incorporating Bilingual Dictionaries for Neural Machine Translation

Existing work in multilingual pretraining has demonstrated the potential of cross-lingual transferability by training a unified Transformer encoder for multiple languages. However, much of this work only relies on the shared vocabulary and bilingual contexts to encourage the correlation across languages, which is loose and implicit for aligning the contextual representations between languages. In this paper, we plug a cross-attention module into the Transformer encoder to explicitly build the interdependence between languages. It can effectively avoid the degeneration of predicting masked words only conditioned on the context in its own language. More importantly, when fine-tuning on downstream tasks, the cross-attention module can be plugged in or out on-demand, thus naturally benefiting a wider range of cross-lingual tasks, from language understanding to generation. 

As a result, the proposed cross-lingual model delivers new state-of-the-art results on various cross-lingual understanding tasks of the XTREME benchmark, covering text classification, sequence labeling, question answering, and sentence retrieval. For cross-lingual generation tasks, it also outperforms all existing cross-lingual models and state-of-the-art Transformer variants on WMT14 English-to-German and English-to-French translation datasets, with gains of up to 1~2 BLEU.

VECO: Variable and Flexible Cross-lingual Pre-training for Language Understanding and Generation

The sentence is a fundamental unit of text processing.
Yet sentences in the wild are commonly encountered not in isolation, but unsegmented within larger paragraphs and documents.
Therefore, the first step in many NLP pipelines is \emph{sentence segmentation}.
Despite its importance, this step is the subject of relatively little research.
There are no standard test sets or even methods for evaluation, leaving researchers and engineers without a clear footing for evaluating and selecting models for the task.
Existing tools have relatively small language coverage, and efforts to extend them to other languages are often ad hoc.

We introduce a modern context-based modeling approach that provides a solution to the problem of segmenting punctuated text in many languages, and show how it can be trained on noisily-annotated data. 
We also establish a new 23-language multilingual evaluation set.
Our approach exceeds high baselines set by existing methods on prior English corpora (WSJ and Brown corpora), and also performs well on average on our new evaluation set.
We release our tool, ersatz, as open source.

A unified approach to sentence segmentation of punctuated text in many languages

A good translation should not only translate the original content semantically, but also incarnate personal traits of the original text. For a real-world neural machine translation (NMT) system, these user traits (e.g., topic preference, stylistic characteristics and expression habits) can be preserved in user behavior (e.g., historical inputs). However, current NMT systems marginally consider the user behavior due to: 1) the difficulty of modeling user portraits in zero-shot scenarios, and 2) the lack of user-behavior annotated parallel dataset. To fill this gap, we introduce a novel framework called user-driven NMT. Specifically, a cache-based module and a user-driven contrastive learning method are proposed to offer NMT the ability to capture potential user traits from their historical inputs under a zero-shot learning fashion. Furthermore, we contribute the first Chinese-English parallel corpus annotated with user behavior called UDT-Corpus. Experimental results confirm that the proposed user-driven NMT can generate user-specific translations.

Towards User-Driven Neural Machine Translation

Lexically constrained machine translation allows the user to manipulate the output sentence by enforcing the presence or absence of certain words and phrases.
Although current approaches can enforce terms to appear in the translation, they often struggle to make the constraint word form agree with the rest of the generated output.
Our manual analysis shows that 46% of the errors in the output of a baseline constrained model for English to Czech translation are related to agreement.
We investigate mechanisms to allow neural machine translation to infer the correct word inflection given lemmatized constraints.
In particular, we focus on methods based on training the model with constraints provided as part of the input sequence.
Our experiments on English-Czech language pair show that this approach improves translation of constrained terms in both automatic and manual evaluation by reducing errors in agreement.
Our approach thus eliminates inflection errors, without introducing new errors or decreasing overall quality of the translation.

End-to-End Lexically Constrained Machine Translation for Morphologically Rich Languages

Cross-lingual text classification aims at training a classifier on the source language and transferring the knowledge to target languages, which is very useful for low-resource languages. Recent multilingual pretrained language models (mPLM) achieve impressive results in cross-lingual classification tasks, but rarely consider factors beyond semantic similarity, causing performance degradation between some language pairs. In this paper we propose a simple yet effective method to incorporate heterogeneous information within and across languages for cross-lingual text classification using graph convolutional networks (GCN). In particular, we construct a heterogeneous graph by treating documents and words as nodes, and linking nodes with different relations, which include part-of-speech roles, semantic similarity, and document translations. Extensive experiments show that our graph-based method significantly outperforms state-of-the-art models on all tasks, and also achieves consistent performance gain over baselines in low-resource settings where external tools like translators are unavailable.

Cross-lingual Text Classification with Heterogeneous Graph Neural Network

Technical logbooks are a challenging and under-explored text type in automated event identification. These texts are typically short and written in non-standard yet technical language, posing challenges to off-the-shelf NLP pipelines. The granularity of issue types described in these datasets additionally leads to class imbalance, making it challenging for models to accurately predict which issue each logbook entry describes. In this paper we focus on the problem of technical issue classification by considering logbook datasets from the automotive, aviation, and facilities maintenance domains. We adapt a feedback strategy from computer vision for handling extreme class imbalance, which resamples the training data based on its error in the prediction process. Our experiments show that with statistical significance this feedback strategy provides the best results for four different neural network models trained across a suite of seven different technical logbook datasets from distinct technical domains. The feedback strategy is also generic and could be applied to any learning problem with substantial class imbalances.

Handling Extreme Class Imbalance in Technical Logbook Datasets

Automated Term Extraction (ATE), even though well-investigated, continues to be a challenging task. Approaches conventionally extract terms on corpus or document level and the benefits of neural models still remain underexplored with very few exceptions. We introduce three transformer-based term extraction models operating on sentence level: a language model for token classification, one for sequence classification, and an innovative use of Neural Machine Translation (NMT), which learns to reduce sentences to terms. All three models are trained and tested on the dataset of the ATE challenge TermEval 2020 in English, French, and Dutch across four specialized domains. The two best performing approaches are also evaluated on the ACL RD-TEC 2.0 dataset. Our models outperform previous baselines, one of which is BERT-based, by a substantial margin, with the token-classifier language model performing best.

Transforming Term Extraction: Transformer-Based Approaches to Multilingual Term Extraction Across Domains

Transformers have been shown to emulate logical deduction over natural language theories (logical rules expressed in natural language), reliably assigning true/false labels to candidate implications. However, their ability to *generate* implications of a theory has not yet been demonstrated, and methods for reconstructing proofs of answers are imperfect. In this work we show that a generative model, called ProofWriter, can reliably generate both implications of a theory and the natural language proofs that support them. In particular, iterating a 1-step implication generator results in proofs that are highly reliable, and represent actual model decisions (rather than post-hoc rationalizations). On the RuleTaker dataset, the accuracy of ProofWriter's proofs exceed previous methods by +9% absolute, and in a way that generalizes to proof depths unseen in training and on out-of-domain problems. We also show that generative techniques can perform a type of abduction with high precision: Given a theory and an unprovable conclusion, identify a missing fact that allows the conclusion to be proved, along with a proof. These results significantly improve the viability of neural methods for systematically reasoning over natural language.

ProofWriter: Generating Implications, Proofs, and Abductive Statements over Natural Language

Multimodal Image–Language transformers have achieved impressive results on a variety of tasks that rely on fine-tuning (e.g., visual question answering and image retrieval). We are interested in shedding light on the quality of their pretrained representations – in particular, if these models can distinguish different types of verbs or if they rely solely on nouns in a given sentence. To do so, we collect a dataset of image–sentence pairs (in English) consisting of 421 verbs that are either visual or commonly found in the pretraining data (i.e., the Conceptual Captions dataset). We use this dataset to evaluate pretrained image–language transformers and find that they fail more in situations that require verb understanding compared to other parts of speech. We also investigate what category of verbs are particularly challenging.

ILDC for CJPE: Indian Legal Documents Corpus for Court Judgment Prediction and Explanation

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ILDC for CJPE: Indian Legal Documents Corpus for Court Judgment Prediction and Explanation

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Next from IJCNLP-AACL 2021

Point, Disambiguate and Copy: Incorporating Bilingual Dictionaries for Neural Machine Translation

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Polyjuice: Generating Counterfactuals for Explaining, Evaluating, and Improving Models

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PRESENTATIONS

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COMPANY

RESOURCES

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