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Enhancing the task-specific capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) primarily requires substantial instruction-tuning datasets. However, the sheer volume of such data imposes a considerable annotation cost, and a lack of optimization methods for tailoring LLMs to specific tasks persists. To address the above issues, we propose a Planning framework for constructing Extractive-based LLMs called PlanE, which includes data decomposition, instruction tuning, and prompt inference. Additionally, we introduce a Data-Tuning-Inference (DTI) planner, aimed at selecting the optimal base-LLM and its DTI combinations for specific datasets to improve construction efficiency. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of our PlanE from two views: (1) across different datasets using the same base-LLM, and (2) on the same dataset using different base-LLMs. Furthermore, we validate the generalizability of the proposed DTI planner under different optimization objectives. The codes are publicly available at https://github.com/gugugu-469/PlanE.

ACL 2026

 PlanE: Meta Planning of Data, Tuning, and Inference for Extractive-based LLMs

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The 62nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2024) will take place in Bangkok, Thailand from August 11th to 16th, 2024. More information will be announced soon.

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It is my great pleasure and honor to welcome you to the 64th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2026), held in San Diego, California, USA, July 2–7, 2026. ACL 2026 continues our fields tradition of excellence in scholarship, innovation, and inclusivity, and I am deeply grateful to the many volunteers who have worked tirelessly to bring this event to life.

It is exciting to see the many developments in the field reflected at our conference, such as the advancement of large language models (born out of our community) into many application directions. This is not without challenges, partly due to unsolved problems, and partly due to misuse of the technology. All this is reflected well at ACL 2026. The conference also reflects that the field is not only about advancing technology, but also the science of fundamentally understanding language and how it is use by many different speaker communities. 
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The 64th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2026) will take place in San Diego, California, from July 2 - 7, 2026.

Reasoning language models (RLMs) achieve strong performance on complex reasoning tasks, yet they still exhibit a multilingual reasoning gap, performing better in high-resource languages than in low-resource ones. While recent efforts have been made to address this gap, its underlying causes remain largely unexplored. In this work, we show that this gap primarily stems from failures in language understanding—specifically, the model’s inability to translate multilingual inputs into the language dominating its reasoning traces (typically English). As identifying understanding failures can enable targeted mitigation of the gap, we evaluate a range of detection methods and find that understanding failures are detectable to a meaningful extent, with supervised approaches performing best. Building on this, we propose Selective Translation, a strategy that incorporates an English translation into the initial reasoning trace when an understanding failure is detected. Experimental results using Qwen3-4B show that Selective Translation substantially bridges the multilingual reasoning gap, achieving near full-translation performance while translating only about 20% of inputs. Together, our results show that failures in language understanding are the primary driver of the multilingual reasoning gap and can be detected and selectively mitigated, clarifying its origin and suggesting a path toward more equitable multilingual reasoning.

 Why Do Multilingual Reasoning Gaps Emerge in Reasoning Language Models?

A key challenge for Large Language Models (LLMs) is improving their Multilingual instruction-following ability over time without deteriorating their ability in languages they already excel at, typically English. In this paper, we study a two-phase \emph{Continual Fine-tuning (CFT)} setup toward improving a model's Multilingual adaptability. Concretely, we consider a two-phase CFT process in which an English-only end-to-end instruction fine-tuned LLM (Phase 1) is sequentially fine-tuned on a multilingual instruction dataset (Phase 2). Across MISTRAL-7B and LLAMA-3-8B and multiple dataset pairs, we show that instructional similarity between phases is critical: aligned datasets preserve or improve English while boosting multilingual ability, whereas misaligned datasets cause English degradation. We show that this degradation arises from representation shift during CFT, and that targeted mitigation strategies, including generative replay and heuristic-based layer freezing, reduce this shift and improve multilingual adaptation.

Exploring Two-Phase Continual Instruction Fine-tuning for Multilingual Adaptation in Large Language Models

The popular path query - identifying the most frequented routes between locations from historical trajectory data - has important applications in urban planning, navigation optimization, and travel recommendations. While traditional algorithms and machine learning approaches have achieved success in this domain, they typically require model training, parameter tuning, and retraining when accommodating data updates. As Large Language Models (LLMs) demonstrate increasing capabilities in spatial and graph-based reasoning, there is growing interest in exploring how these models can be applied to geo-spatial problems.

We introduce CompassLLM, a novel multi-agent framework that intelligently leverages the reasoning capabilities of LLMs into the geo-spatial domain to solve the popular path query. CompassLLM employs its agents in a two-stage pipeline: the SEARCH stage that identifies popular paths, and a GENERATE stage that synthesizes novel paths in the absence of an existing one in the historical trajectory data. Experiments on real and synthetic datasets show that CompassLLM demonstrates superior accuracy in SEARCH and competitive performance in GENERATE while being cost-effective.

CompassLLM: A Multi-Agent Approach toward Geo-Spatial Reasoning for Popular Path Query

With the rapid progress of LLMs, high quality generative text has become widely available as a cover for text steganography. However, prevailing methods rely on hand-crafted or pre-specified strategies and struggle to balance efficiency, imperceptibility, and security, particularly at high embedding rates. Accordingly, we propose Auto-Stega, an agent-driven self-evolving framework that is the first to realize self-evolving steganographic strategies by automatically discovering, composing, and adapting strategies at inference time; the framework operates as a closed loop of generating, evaluating, summarizing, and updating that continually curates a structured strategy library and adapts across corpora, styles, and task constraints. A decoding LLM recovers the information under the shared strategy. To handle high embedding rates, we introduce PC-DNTE, a plug-and-play algorithm that maintains alignment with the base model's conditional distribution at high embedding rates, preserving imperceptibility while enhancing security. Experimental results demonstrate that at higher embedding rates Auto-Stega achieves superior performance with gains of 42.2\% in perplexity and 1.6\% in anti-steganalysis performance over SOTA methods.

Auto-Stega: An Agent-Driven System for Lifelong Strategy Evolution in LLM-Based Text Steganography

Large language models (LLMs) often encode word-form variation (e.g., *walk* vs. *walk**ed***) as linear directions in the embedding space. However, standard tokenization algorithms treat such variants as distinct words with different vocabulary entries—quickly filling the size-capped token vocabulary with surface-form variation (e.g., *walk*, *walk**ing***, ***W**alk*), at the expense of diversity and multilingual coverage. We show that many of these variations can be captured by *transformation* vectors—additive offsets that yield the appropriate word representation when applied to a *base form* embedding, in both the input and output spaces. Building on this, we propose a compact reshaping of the vocabulary: instead of assigning unique tokens to each surface form, we compose them from shared *base form* and *transformation* vectors (e.g., *walked* is *walk*+*past tense*). Our approach is lightweight—keeping the pretrained backbone frozen and only training small adaptation modules. We apply it across five languages and multiple LLMs in both pretraining and post-hoc adaptation, freeing 10-40% of vocabulary slots to be reallocated where tokenization is inefficient. Importantly, we do so while also expanding vocabulary coverage to out-of-vocabulary words, and with minimal impact on downstream performance. Our findings motivate a rethinking of vocabulary design, towards a representation that better matches the underlying structure of language and the practical needs of multilingual coverage.

Vocab Diet: Reshaping the Vocabulary of LLMs via Vector Arithmetic

Data marketplaces analyze strategic data exchanges among users, platforms, and buyers. However, most existing studies model static equilibria and complete information, which limits their realism. In this work, we study whether large language model (LLM)-driven agents can make equilibrium-consistent decisions in analytically tractable data marketplaces with evolving and incomplete-information. Specifically, we introduce EvoDM, an agent-based modeling framework that extends the static data marketplace to dynamic and incomplete-information settings while providing tractable equilibrium benchmarks for evaluating agent decisions. Building upon EvoDM, we propose Datamart-Agent, an LLM-driven game-theoretic agent that improves equilibrium-consistent decision execution through dynamic game tree memory and mechanism-guided reflection, without requiring parameter updates. Experiments demonstrate that Datamart-Agent closely matches equilibrium-consistent decision-making, achieving the lowest utility gap and over 20\% higher Pass@$\epsilon$ than strong baselines. After validating its effectiveness, we employ EvoDM with Datamart-Agent to analyze competition and regulation in assumption-relaxed settings where closed-form ground truth is unavailable, providing exploratory simulation-based insights into market dynamics and regulatory effects.

Datamart-Agent: LLM-Driven Game-Theoretic Agent for Data Marketplace Modeling

In-context learning (ICL) is the standard method for low-resource classification, yet its efficacy in specialized domains remains largely unexplored. We address the challenge of classifying semantically complex, multi-party B2B conversations, where traditional ICL encounters significant limitations, especially as context length increases due to the concatenation of multiple few-shot examples. We introduce the Call Playbook dataset, featuring five classification tasks derived from real-world B2B conversations targeting core sales concepts. To bridge the gap between performance and practical utility, we propose novel knowledge extraction methods that distill verbose examples into compact, interpretable representations of structured classification criteria and precise task descriptions. Our approach achieves a 99% reduction in token usage and improves macro-averaged AUC by up to 7% over traditional ICL. Notably, it remains robust as context grows, unlike advanced token compression baselines which degrade by over 9 F1 points. Importantly, our framework enables direct refinement of classification logic, addressing critical needs for transparency, efficiency, and user interaction in real-world NLP applications.

Distilling Examples into Task Instructions: Enhanced In-Context Learning for Real-World B2B Conversations

Humans are able to predict each other’s actions by reasoning about the others’ underlying goals, preferences, and motives, such as greed and risk-aversion. Game theory provides a framework for studying human behaviors through incentivized games that simulate social situations. We utilized two validated games from the cognitive science literature—the Social Prediction Game (SPG) and the Inspection Game (IG)—to systematically study how well several recent open- and closed-source LLMs predict player actions and whether they can leverage and generalize the players’ motives learned from the iterated games. Our results indicate that state-of-the-art LLMs can achieve accuracy close to human levels in predicting players’ actions with underlying human motives in SPGs. However, unlike humans, who rely on reasoning about players’ motives to inform their predictions, LLMs failed to recognize statistical patterns in players’ actions. As a result, LLM prediction accuracy did not improve over multiple rounds. Our results in the IG further demonstrate that, unlike humans, LLMs were unable to recognize a player’s underlying motives and to generalize their understanding of the same player to a new context. This suggests that LLMs may lack reasoning capabilities. Our findings offer insights into differences in human and LLM reasoning mechanisms, suggesting that further research into human-AI alignment is needed before utilizing LLMs for human behavior modeling and simulation in this and related contexts.

Can Large Language Models Infer Human Actions and Motives? Evaluation in Social Prediction and Inspection Games

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly grounded in sensor data to perceive and reason about human physiology and the physical world. However, accurately interpreting heterogeneous multimodal sensor data remains a fundamental challenge. We show that a single monolithic LLM often fails to reason coherently across modalities, leading to incomplete interpretations and prior-knowledge bias. We introduce ConSensus, a training-free multi-agent collaboration framework that decomposes multimodal sensing tasks into specialized, modality-aware agents. To aggregate agent-level interpretations, we propose a hybrid fusion mechanism that balances semantic aggregation, which enables cross-modal reasoning and contextual understanding, with statistical consensus, which provides robustness through agreement across modalities. While each approach has complementary failure modes, their combination enables reliable inference under sensor noise and missing data. We evaluate ConSensus on five diverse multimodal sensing benchmarks, demonstrating an average accuracy improvement of 7.1% over the single-agent baseline. Furthermore, ConSensus matches or exceeds the performance of iterative multi-agent debate methods while achieving a 12.7 times reduction in average fusion token cost through a single-round hybrid fusion protocol, yielding a robust and efficient solution for real-world multimodal sensing tasks. The source code is available at https://github.com/nokia/multi-agent-collaboration-for-multimodal-sensing.

ConSensus: Multi-Agent Collaboration for Multimodal Sensing

Knowledge components (KCs) are key to assessing student knowledge levels on fine-grained skills and driving personalization and feedback. However, crafting KCs and tagging them for problems, traditionally performed by human domain experts, is highly labor-intensive. Prior work has studied automated KC generation only for multiple-choice questions but not open-ended ones. We bridge this gap and present an automated, large language model (LLM)-based pipeline for KC generation and tagging for open-ended programming problems. We also develop an LLM-based knowledge tracing (KT) framework to leverage these LLM-generated KCs. We conduct extensive quantitative and qualitative evaluations on two real-world student code submission datasets. Results show that our KT method outperforms existing ones and LLM-generated KCs outperform human-written KCs on future student response prediction. We also investigate how these KCs enable us to analyze student learning curves and conduct human evaluation with course instructors to further verify the quality of KC-problem tagging.

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Why Do Multilingual Reasoning Gaps Emerge in Reasoning Language Models?

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