China

Contrastively-trained Vision-Language Models (VLMs), such as CLIP, have become the standard approach for learning discriminative vision-language representations. However, these models often exhibit shallow language understanding, manifesting bag-of-words behaviour. These limitations are reinforced by their dual-encoder design, which induces a \textit{modality gap}. Additionally, the reliance on vast web-collected data corpora for training makes the process computationally expensive and introduces significant privacy concerns. To address these limitations, in this work, we challenge the necessity of vision encoders for retrieval tasks by introducing a textitvision-free, single-encoder retrieval pipeline. Departing from the traditional text-to-image retrieval paradigm, we migrate to a text-to-text paradigm with the assistance of VLLM-generated structured image descriptions. We demonstrate that this paradigm shift has significant advantages, including a substantial reduction of the modality gap, improved compositionality, and better performance on short and long caption queries, all attainable with only two hours of calibration on two GPUs. Additionally, substituting raw images with textual descriptions introduces a more privacy-friendly alternative for retrieval. To further assess generalisation and address some of the shortcomings of prior compositionality benchmarks, we release two benchmarks derived from Flickr30k and COCO, containing diverse compositional queries made of short captions, which we coin subFlickr and subCOCO. Our vision-free retriever matches and often surpasses traditional multimodal models. Importantly, our approach achieves state-of-the-art zero-shot performance on multiple retrieval and compositionality benchmarks, with models as small as 0.3B parameters.

EMNLP 2025

Vision-Free Retrieval: Rethinking Multimodal Search with Textual Scene Descriptions

multimodal; retrieval; compositional; generalisation;

# Welcome everyone to ACL 2022!

The 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics is taking place May 22-27, 2022 as a hybrid event, in Dublin and online. We are happy to welcome all of you to this anniversary edition with an almost 50-50 in-person and virtual participation. 
The main conference program features oral presentations, in-person and virtual posters and demo sessions, a plenary session for our best paper presentations and awards, three amazing keynote events and two new initiatives of invited talks: Spotlight Talks for Young Rising Stars (STIRS) and The Next Big Idea Talks. Posters (including Findings of ACL 2022) and demos are grouped by areas for both the in-person and the virtual sessions. For the virtual component, the talks will be on Zoom and the posters and the demos will be in GatherTown. The Student Research Workshop will have an oral session and a poster session as part of Poster Session 1. The program also features eight Tutorials and 28 Workshops. 

 
We wish you a wonderful conference! 
[**The ACL 2022 Organizing Committee**](https://www.2022.aclweb.org/organisers)
 
[**Conference Handbook**](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1_BUCMfhMVrjG9E2e71aHdHeE28KSje0l/view?usp=sharing) 
[**Mini Handbook**](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qlBKl0wzmlVF1oCeMQl3BahLd9nLP5Ce/view?usp=sharing) 
[**Posters and Demo guides**](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UucMAoCNncIOaH1rMMDa0owuG9qgvJTG/view?usp=sharing)

ACL 2022

The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is the premier international scientific and professional society for people working on computational problems involving human language, a field often referred to as either computational linguistics or natural language processing (NLP). 

poster

## Welcome!
"I am excited to welcome you to this year’s edition of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing! Importantly, it marks the 30th edition of EMNLP. With over 8,000 submissions, more than 3,000 accepted papers, and thousands of attendees, we have come a long way from that first
workshop, which had 14 accepted papers. As the field looks ahead, Suzhou is the fitting location for celebrating this milestone: rooted in a long literary tradition, yet modern and forward-looking, and home to a large share of the NLP community." 

*Message from the General Chair, Dirk Hovy*

Celebrate 30 Years of EMNLP! 
EMNLP 2025 will be held in Suzhou, China from November 5th to November 9th, 2025.

Conceptual operationalizations of empathy in NLP are varied, with some having specific behaviors and properties, while others are more abstract. How these variations relate to one another and capture properties of empathy observable in text remains unclear. To provide insight into this, we analyze the transfer performance of empathy models adapted to empathy tasks with different theoretical groundings. We study (1) the dimensionality of empathy definitions, (2) the correspondence between the defined dimensions and measured/observed properties, and (3) the conduciveness of the data to represent them, finding they have a significant impact to performance compared to other transfer setting features. Characterizing the theoretical grounding of empathy tasks as \textit{direct}, \textit{abstract}, or \textit{adjacent} further indicates that tasks that directly predict specified empathy components have higher transferability. Our work provides empirical evidence for the need for precise and multidimensional empathy operationalizations.

The Practical Impacts of Theoretical Constructs on Empathy Modeling

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) enhances factual grounding by integrating retrieval mechanisms with generative models but introduces new attack surfaces, particularly through backdoor attacks. While prior research has largely focused on disinformation threats, fairness vulnerabilities remain underexplored. Unlike conventional backdoors that rely on direct trigger-to-target mappings, fairness-driven attacks exploit the interaction between retrieval and generation models, manipulating semantic relationships between target groups and social biases to establish a persistent and covert influence on content generation. This paper introduces BiasRAG , a systematic framework that exposes fairness vulnerabilities in RAG through a two-phase backdoor attack. During the pre-training phase, the query encoder is compromised to align the target group with the intended social bias, ensuring long-term persistence. In the post-deployment phase, adversarial documents are injected into knowledge bases to reinforce the backdoor, subtly influencing retrieved content while remaining undetectable under standard fairness evaluations. Together, BiasRAG ensures precise target alignment over sensitive attributes, stealthy execution, and resilience. Empirical evaluations demonstrate that BiasRAG achieves high attack success rates while preserving contextual relevance and utility, establishing a persistent and evolving threat to fairness in RAG.

Your RAG is Unfair: Exposing Fairness Vulnerabilities in Retrieval-Augmented Generation via Backdoor Attacks

To answer one-to-many factual queries (e.g., listing cities of a country), a language model (LM) must simultaneously recall knowledge and avoid repeating previous answers. How are these two subtasks implemented and integrated internally? Across multiple datasets and models, we identify a promote-then-suppress mechanism: the model first recalls all answers, and then suppresses previously generated ones. Specifically, LMs use both the subject and previous answer tokens to perform knowledge recall, with attention propagating subject information and MLPs promoting the answers. Then, attention attends to and suppresses previous answer tokens, while MLPs amplify the suppression signal. Our mechanism is corroborated by extensive experimental evidence: in addition to using early decoding and causal tracing, we analyze how components use different tokens by introducing both Token Lens, which decodes aggregated attention updates from specified tokens, and a knockout method that analyzes changes in MLP outputs after removing attention to specified tokens. Overall, we provide new insights into how LMs' internal components interact with different input tokens to support complex factual recall.

Promote, Suppress, Iterate: How Language Models Answer One-to-Many Factual Queries

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly applied to socially grounded tasks, yet their ability to mirror human behavior in emotionally and strategically complex contexts remains unclear. This study assesses the behavioral fidelity of personality-prompted LLMs in adversarial dispute resolution by simulating multi-turn negotiation dialogues. Each LLM is guided by a matched Five-Factor personality profile to control for individual variation and enhance realism. We evaluate alignment across three dimensions: linguistic style, emotional expression, and strategic behavior. GPT-4.1 aligns most closely with humans in language and emotion, while Claude-3.7-Sonnet best reflects strategic behavior. Despite these strengths, notable gaps remain. Our findings provide a benchmark for LLM-human alignment in socially complex interactions and highlight both the promise and limitations of personality conditioning in dialogue modeling.

Evaluating Behavioral Alignment in Conflict Dialogue: A Multi-Dimensional Comparison of LLM Agents and Humans

This paper introduces an algorithm to select demonstration examples for in-context learning of a query set. Given a set of n examples, how can we quickly select k out of n to best serve as the conditioning for a downstream task? This problem has broad applications in prompt tuning and chain-of-thought reasoning, to name a few. Since model weights remain fixed during in-context learning, previous work has sought to design methods based on similarity scores measured in the input embeddings. This work proposes a new approach based on gradients of the model output taken in the input embedding space. Our approach estimates model outputs through a first-order approximation using the gradients. Then, we apply this estimation to multiple randomly sampled subsets. Finally, we aggregate the sampled subset outcomes to form an influence score for each demonstration, and select k most relevant examples. This procedure only requires pre-computing model outputs and gradients once, leading to a linear-time algorithm relative to model and training set sizes. Extensive experiments across various LLMs and datasets validate the efficiency of our approach. We show that the gradient estimation procedure yields approximations of full inference with less than 1\% error across six datasets. This allows us to scale up subset selection methods that would otherwise run full inference by up to 37.7times on LLMs with up to 34 billion parameters, and outperform existing selection methods based on input embeddings by 11\% on average.

Linear-Time Demonstration Selection for In-Context Learning via Gradient Estimation

Edge deployment of task-oriented semantic parsers demands high accuracy under tight latency and memory budgets. We present Grammar Pruning, a lightweight zero-shot framework that begins with a user-defined schema of API calls and couples a rule-based entity extractor with an iterative grammar-constrained decoder: extracted items dynamically prune the context-free grammar, limiting generation to only those intents, slots, and values that remain plausible at each step. This aggressive search-space reduction both eliminates hallucinations and slashes decoding time. On the adapted FoodOrdering, APIMixSNIPS, and APIMixATIS benchmarks, Grammar Pruning with small language models achieves an average execution accuracy of over 90%—rivaling State-of-the-Art, cloud-based solutions—while sustaining at least 2x lower end-to-end latency than existing methods. By requiring nothing beyond the domain’s full API schema values yet delivering precise, real-time natural-language understanding, Grammar Pruning positions itself as a practical building block for future edge-AI applications that cannot rely on large models or cloud offloading.

Grammar Pruning: Enabling Low-Latency Zero-Shot Task-Oriented Language Models for Edge AI

Chain-of-thought (CoT) prompting enhances reasoning in large language models (LLMs) but often leads to verbose and redundant outputs, thus increasing inference cost. We hypothesize that many reasoning steps are unnecessary for producing correct answers. To investigate this, we start with a systematic study to investigate what is the minimum reasoning required for a model to reach a stable decision. Based on the insights, we propose three inference-time strategies to improve efficiency: (1) early stopping via answer consistency, (2) boosting the probability of generating end-of-reasoning signals, and (3) a supervised method that learns when to stop based on internal activations. Experiments across five benchmarks and five open-weights LLMs show that our methods largely reduce token usage with little or no accuracy drop. In particular, on NaturalQuestions, Answer Consistency reduces tokens by over 40% while further improving accuracy. Our work underscores the importance of cost-effective reasoning methods that operate at inference time, offering practical benefits for real-world applications.

Answer Convergence as a Signal for Early Stopping in Reasoning

In this paper, we introduce a novel and exciting task: the automated generation of linguistic puzzles. We focus on puzzles used in Linguistic Olympiads for high school students. We present results from a series of experiments using Large Language Models (LLMs), both with and without explicit reasoning capabilities, applying a range of prompting techniques. Automating puzzle generation—even for relatively simple puzzles—holds promise for expanding interest in linguistics and introducing the field to a broader audience. We also explore the use of LLMs for solving linguistic puzzles, analyzing their performance across various linguistic topics. We demonstrate that LLMs outperform humans on most puzzles types, except for those centered on writing systems, and for the understudied languages. This finding highlights the importance of linguistic puzzle generation as a research task: such puzzles can not only promote linguistics but also support the dissemination of knowledge about rare and understudied languages.

Can LLMs Generate and Solve Linguistic Olympiad Puzzles?

Assessing the originality of creative ideas often relies on their statistical infrequency within a population---an approach long used in creativity research but difficult to automate at scale. Human annotation via manual bucketing of idea rephrasings is labor-intensive, subjective, and brittle under large corpora. We introduce a fully automated, psychometrically validated pipeline for frequency-based originality scoring. Our method, MuseRAG, combines large language models (LLMs) with an externally orchestrated retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) framework. Given a new idea, the system retrieves semantically similar prior idea buckets and zero-shot prompts the LLM to judge whether the new idea belongs to an existing bucket or forms a new one. The resulting buckets enable computation of frequency-based originality metrics. MuseRAG matches human annotators in both idea clustering (AMI = 0.59) and participant-level originality scores (r = 0.89), while exhibiting strong convergent and external validity. Our work enables intent-sensitive, human-aligned originality scoring, aiding creativity research at scale.

MuseScorer: Idea Originality Scoring At Scale

Large Language Models (LLMs) not only have solved complex reasoning problems but also exhibit remarkable performance in tasks that require subjective decision-making. Existing studies suggest that LLM generations can convey subjectivity to some extent, yet exploring whether LLMs can account for individual-level subjectivity has not been sufficiently studied. In this paper, we characterize the subjectivity of individuals on social media and infer their moral judgments using LLMs. We propose a framework, SolAr (Subjective Ground with Value Abstraction), that observes value conflicts and trade-offs in the user-generated texts to better represent subjective ground of individuals. Empirical results demonstrate that our framework enhances overall inference performance, with notable improvements for users with limited data and in controversial situations. Additionally, we qualitatively show that SolAr provides explanations about individuals' value preferences, which can further account for their judgments.

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The Practical Impacts of Theoretical Constructs on Empathy Modeling

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